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Curcuma Root is the dried tuberous root of the ginger family plants Curcuma wenyujin Y.H. Chen et C.Ling, Curcuma longa L., Curcuma kwangsiensis S.G. Lee et C.F. Liang, or Curcuma phaeocaulis Val. The tuberous roots of the first two are commonly referred to as "Wen Curcuma Root" and "Yellow Silk Curcuma Root," respectively, while the others are known as "Gui Curcuma Root" or "Green Silk Curcuma Root" based on their characteristics. Turmeric is the dried rhizome of the plant Curcuma longa L. Zedoary Rhizome refers to the dried rhizomes of Curcuma phaeocaulis Val., Curcuma kwangsiensis S.G. Lee et C.F. Liang, or Curcuma wenyujin Y.H. Chen et C.Ling. In commerce, these three rhizomes are commonly referred to as "Wenzhu," "Gui Zedoary Rhizome," and "Wen Zedoary Rhizome." Sliced Turmeric is the dried rhizome of Curcuma wenyujin Y.H. Chen et C.Ling, harvested after the stems and leaves wither in winter, washed clean, fibrous roots removed, and cut into thick slices while fresh, then dried. Commercially, Yellow Silk Curcuma Root is mainly produced in Shuangliu and Leshan regions of Sichuan; Wen Curcuma Root is mainly produced in Rui'an and Wenzhou, Zhejiang; Gui Curcuma Root is mainly produced in Nanning, Liuzhou, Hepu in Guangxi, and parts of Guangdong; Green Silk Curcuma Root is mainly produced in Shuangliu, Chongzhou, and Xinjin in Sichuan. Turmeric is mainly produced in Qianwei, Leshan, Jingyan, Shuangliu, Xinjin, Wenjiang, and Chongzhou in Sichuan, Wuping and Longyan in Fujian, Foshan, Huaxian, and Panyu in Guangdong, Qianshan in Jiangxi, and also in Guangxi, Hubei, Shaanxi, Taiwan, and Yunnan. Wenzhu is mainly produced in Qianwei, Muchuan, Leshan, Shuangliu, Xinjin, and Chongzhou in Sichuan, and Jianyang and Anle in Fujian; Gui Zedoary Rhizome is mainly produced in Shangsi, Guixian, Hengxian, Daxin, and Yongning in Guangxi; Wen Zedoary Rhizome is mainly produced in Rui'an and Wenzhou in Zhejiang. The production areas of Sliced Turmeric are the same as those of Wen Zedoary Rhizome.

Materia medica research suggests: (1) Before the Qing Dynasty, the medicinal Curcuma Root was primarily the rhizome of Sichuan-produced Turmeric Curcuma longa. Due to the Revolt of the Three Feudatories during the Qing Dynasty, other plants of the same genus from different regions were also used as Curcuma Root, and the medicinal part gradually shifted from the rhizome to the tuberous root. Subsequently, due to the regulations of the national pharmacopoeia, Curcuma Root changed from a single-source variety to a multi-source variety. Historically, Sichuan-produced Curcuma Root was considered authentic, but after the Qing Dynasty changed to multiple sources, it was produced in Sichuan, Zhejiang, and Guangxi. (2) During the Tang and Song periods, the medicinal Turmeric was likely dominated by the rhizome of Wen Curcuma Root Curcuma wenyujin. Starting from the Ming Dynasty, the main rhizome of Curcuma longa was called Pianzi Turmeric, and by the Qing Dynasty, the main and lateral rhizomes of Curcuma longa were primarily used as Turmeric. Since the Qing Dynasty, Sichuan-produced Turmeric has been considered authentic and is known as Sichuan Turmeric. (3) Official materia medica of the Tang Dynasty did not consider Zedoary Rhizome as a separate medicinal substance. Chen Cang-qi mistakenly identified old ginger as Turmeric and thus referred to plants like Curcuma wenyujin, which were used as Turmeric in Xinxiu Bencao, as "Shu" or "Peng Zedoary Rhizome". Song Dynasty materia medica accepted Chen Cang-qi's view, making Curcuma wenyujin and Curcuma kwangsiensis the mainstream for Zedoary Rhizome medicinal use. Later, other plants of the same genus like Curcuma phaeocaulis were also used as Zedoary Rhizome. Hence, in later generations, Zedoary Rhizome from Zhejiang and Guangxi was considered authentic. (4) As for Pian Turmeric, it has two sources. Curcuma wenyujin, once the authentic source of Turmeric, was later used as Zedoary Rhizome, but its longitudinally sliced rhizome was still called Pian Turmeric. This situation might have occurred as early as the Ming Dynasty. Although the sliced Curcuma longa was also called Pian Turmeric or Pianzi Turmeric, it was no longer used as Pian Turmeric after the Republic of China era. The authentic production area for Pian Turmeric is Zhejiang.

bubble_chart Varietal Identification

Currently used Curcuma Root, Turmeric, Zedoary Rhizome, and sliced Turmeric medicinal materials have many overlapping source plants. According to the Zhongguo Yaodian, they are listed as follows:

	Curcuma Root	Turmeric	Zedoary Rhizome	Sliced Turmeric
Wen Curcuma Root Curcuma wenyujin	Tuberous root		Rhizome	Root constant erection of penis slices
Turmeric Curcuma longa	Tuberous root	Rhizome
Guangxi Zedoary Rhizome Curcuma kwangsiensis	Tuberous root		Rhizome
Peng Zedoary Rhizome Curcuma phaeocaulis	Tuberous root		Rhizome
Chinese medicine efficacy	Pungent, bitter, cold. Meridians of the liver, heart, and lungs. Regulating qi and resolving stasis, clearing the heart to relieve depression, promoting bile flow and reducing jaundice. Used for amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, chest and abdominal distension and fullness, stabbing pain, febrile unconsciousness, epilepsy and mania, jaundice, and dark urine.	Pungent, bitter, warm. Meridians of the spleen and liver. Breaking blood stasis and moving qi, unblocking meridians to stop pain. Used for chest and hypochondriac stabbing pain, amenorrhea, abdominal mass, wind-dampness shoulder and arm pain, and traumatic swelling and pain.	Pungent, bitter, warm. Meridians of the liver and spleen. Moving qi and breaking blood, resolving stagnation and relieving pain. Used for abdominal mass and stuffiness, static blood amenorrhea, food accumulation distending pain; early-stage cervical carcinoma.	Pungent, bitter, warm. Meridians of the lungs and spleen. Breaking blood stasis and moving qi, unblocking meridians to stop pain. Used for blood stagnation amenorrhea, menstrual abdominal pain, chest and hypochondriac stabbing pain, wind-dampness arthralgia, shoulder and arm pain, and traumatic injury.

From the table, it is not difficult to see that there are many ambiguities between Curcuma Root, Turmeric, Zedoary Rhizome, and sliced Turmeric in terms of plant sources and Chinese medicine efficacy, and the reasons need to be analyzed specifically.

Curcuma Root is correctly written as "Curcuma Root". In the "Rites of Zhou", the Spring Official mentions the Yu people, "The Yu people are in charge of the ritual vessels. For all sacrificial and guest rituals, they mix Yu Chang to fill the sacrificial vessels and display them." Note: "Pound Curcuma Root, boil it to mix with Chang wine." Zheng Xuan said: "Yu is the name of a grass, ten leaves make a bunch, one hundred and twenty bunches make a pound, boil it in a pot, and place it before the sacrifice. Yu is a grass like an orchid." What exactly this "Curcuma Root" is, has been a subject of various interpretations throughout history, and it is difficult to reach a definitive conclusion. Some clues in the "Book of Songs" might help in identifying the species of Curcuma Root. The "Da Ya·Jiang Han" has the line "Present you with a jade ladle, a jar of black millet wine, and report to the cultured man." The "black millet wine" is interpreted by some annotators as black millet wine mixed with Curcuma Root grass, but this interpretation is also controversial. The "Da Ya·Han Lu" says "The jade ladle is pure, the yellow flow is within." This "yellow flow" is dyed by Curcuma Root, and there is no disagreement among scholars. This dye likely comes from the yellow pigment contained in the roots and rhizomes of the Curcuma genus of the ginger family, so it is known that early Curcuma Root must have been from this genus.

According to the "Shuowen": "One says Yu Chang, the flower of a hundred grasses, the fragrant grass offered by the Yu people from afar, mixed and brewed to summon the spirits. Yu is now the Yu Lin County." That is, this "Yu" does not seem to be native to the central plains, but was offered from afar. Duan Yucai's annotation in "Shuowen Jiezi" is the most reasonable: "Xu's intention is that ancient texts say it was offered by the Yu people, that is, the people of the present-day Yu Lin County." Further examination of Li Daoyuan's annotation of the "Water Classic" Yu River section also says: "Yu, a fragrant grass, the flower of a hundred grasses boiled and mixed with black millet to summon the spirits. Some say it is the present-day Curcuma Root fragrance. One says it was offered by the Yu people, hence the name of the county." That is, Curcuma Root is produced in Yu Lin County, which is in the present-day Yulin area of Guangxi, and the variety produced should be the Curcuma genus plants mainly distributed in Guangdong and Guangxi, which might be the earliest Curcuma Root.

Perhaps because it was produced in remote areas, there are no records of Curcuma genus plants in materia medica before the Tang Dynasty. Between the Han and Tang dynasties, the term "Curcuma Root" was determined by Buddhist scripture translators as the translation of the Sanskrit term "Tagara". The "Translation Names Collection" says: "Tagara, this is called Curcuma Root." There are roughly two views on what kind of plant Tagara is: (1) The "Jade Candle Treasure Book" quotes the "Records of Foreign Countries in the South" saying: "Curcuma Root fragrance, only the people of Jibin country grow it. First, it is taken to Buddhist temples, and after several days, it is discarded. Then merchants take it. Curcuma Root is bright yellow, and its fine texture is similar to that of the lotus in Furongli, hence it is used to fragrance ritual wine, the Yu flower." This entry in the "Book of Liang·Biography of Central India" and the "Taiping Yulan" both refer to it as "Curcuma Root". From the description of color and flower shape, it should refer to Tulipa gesneriana L. Additionally, the "Yiwen Leiju" quotes Jin Zuo Fen's "Ode to Curcuma Root": "This strange grass, named Curcuma Root, comes from a distant land, its treasure sought, its fragrance intense, pleasing to the eye and heart." What is being praised is probably also Tulipa gesneriana. (2) The "Tang Huiyao" volume 100 says: "In the 21st year of Zhenguan, the country of Kapilavastu offered Curcuma Root fragrance, its leaves resemble Ophiopogon Tuber, it blooms in September, its shape like a lotus, its color purple-blue, its fragrance can be smelled from dozens of steps away, it flowers but does not bear fruit, to plant it, take its roots." The American sinologist Edward Schafer in "The Golden Peaches of Samarkand" interprets this Curcuma Root fragrance as the iris family's Saffron Crocus sativus L. (Wu Yugui's translation still calls it Curcuma Root fragrance, which seems inappropriate, Mao Min's "Pomegranate Flowers from the West" specifically criticizes this.) Citing Chen Cang-qi's statement that Curcuma Root fragrance "flowers like safflower", the interpretation of Curcuma Root fragrance as Saffron is not without reason. In any case, between the Han and Tang dynasties, Curcuma Root or Curcuma Root fragrance definitely did not refer to the Curcuma genus plants of the ginger family.

For some unknown reason, "Curcuma Root" mentioned in the "Rites of Zhou" and the "Book of Songs" was never included in the materia medica until the Tang Dynasty or slightly earlier, when a horse medicine known as "蒁" or "荗" was imported. It was only then that both native and imported Curcuma species from the Zingiberaceae family entered the view of materia medica scholars. The Xinxiu Bencao officially included Curcuma Root and Turmeric as supplements to the "New Revision." Chen Cang-qi's Bencao Shiyi further added E Zhu (蓬莪荗). Below, we will discuss the names and realities of these three drugs, as well as the slightly later issue of Turmeric slices.

1. Curcuma Root

The Curcuma plants from the two Guang regions mentioned earlier might be the varieties of Curcuma Root used as pigments or food additives during the Han Dynasty and before. However, there are no medicinal records from this period. The "Xin Xiu" first comprehensively describes the properties and functions of Curcuma Root: "Pungent, bitter, cold, non-toxic. Mainly treats blood accumulation, lowers qi, promotes tissue regeneration, stops bleeding, breaks down malignant blood, treats blood stranguria and hematuria, and incised wounds." According to Su Jing, Curcuma Root comes from two sources: one from Sichuan and the other from the Western Rong. The one from the Western Rong is "used as horse medicine, breaking blood stasis and tonifying, known as 'Ma Shu' by the Hu people." Ma Shu will be further discussed in the section on Zedoary Rhizome later; here we only discuss the Curcuma Root from Sichuan.

The "Xin Xiu" states: "This herb's seedling resembles Turmeric, with white flowers and red texture. In late autumn, the stem core emerges, bearing no fruit, and the roots are yellow-red. The side roots are peeled and dried by fire." At that time, the color of Curcuma Root seemed to be particularly emphasized, hence the "Shiyao Erya" records its alias "Huang Yu." This Curcuma Root's inflorescence emerges from the center of the leaf sheath in late autumn, mainly produced in Sichuan, with a yellow color. Its original plant should be today's Turmeric Curcuma longa. According to Mr. Xie Zongwan, the medicinal part is likely the lateral rhizome rather than the tuberous root used today. However, the "Ben Jing" mentions "side roots," which does not exclude the possibility of using the tuberous root.

During the Song and Ming periods, Su Jing's opinion was generally followed, with the Sichuan-produced Curcuma longa considered the best. The "Bencao Tujing" states: "Now it is also found in Guangnan and Jiangxi provinces, but the Sichuan variety is superior. It sprouts in early April, with seedlings resembling Turmeric, white flowers, and red texture. In late autumn, the stem core emerges, bearing no fruit, and the roots are yellow-red. The side roots are peeled and dried by fire." The "Bencao Yanyi" states: "Curcuma Root is not fragrant. Nowadays, it is used to dye women's clothes most brightly, but it does not withstand sun exposure. The dyed clothes have a slight Curcuma Root scent." The "Bencao Mengquan" states: "Red with yellow, the Sichuan variety is superior. It has a round body with nodes, resembling a cicada's belly, which is genuine." The "Bencao Gangmu" states: "Curcuma Root has seedlings like ginger, and its roots are finger-sized, about an inch long, round with horizontal lines resembling a cicada's belly, yellow outside and red inside. People use it to dye water, and it also has a slight fragrance." These records all point to the plant species Curcuma longa, and the "Gangmu" mentioning "round body with horizontal lines resembling a cicada's belly" is more likely referring to the main rhizome rather than the tuberous root.

Although it can be said that the main and lateral rhizomes of Curcuma longa were the primary sources of medicinal Curcuma Root before the Ming Dynasty, even during the Tang Dynasty, other plants of the same genus were used as Curcuma Root. For example, the "Xin Xiu" mentions: "The southern variety bears fruit, resembling small white-fruited amomum, which is not edible." Here, Su Jing does not clarify whether the southern Curcuma Root is inedible or if the fruit resembling small white-fruited amomum is inedible. However, the "Zheng Lei" does not depict the medicinal illustration of Sichuan Curcuma Root but instead shows a Chaozhou Curcuma Root (Figure 1), which is likely the one Su Jing referred to as "inedible." This illustration cannot determine the species, but it is undoubtedly a Curcuma plant, and what is highlighted is indeed the rhizome rather than the tuberous root, supporting Mr. Xie's judgment on the medicinal part of Curcuma Root.

Why did Curcuma Root change from a single variety to multiple sources during the Qing Dynasty? The explanation in the "Revised Weiyao Tiaobian" is the most reasonable. Cao Bingzhang said: "Curcuma Root is the root of a mountain grass, wild. It is found in Guangdong, Guangxi, and Jiangxi, but the best comes from Sichuan. In ancient times, it was not highly valued and was used to treat horse diseases, hence also known as Horse Curcuma, because its shape resembles Zedoary Rhizome. It was not used in medicine until after the Tang Dynasty, effective in treating hemorrhagic syndrome, and was not considered a precious item. During the early Qing Dynasty, when the Wu rebellion was not yet quelled and the Sichuan road was blocked, the scarcity of goods led to a several-fold increase in price, and some even used Turmeric as a counterfeit. However, its shape is sharp and round, like a cicada's belly, with a fine strand of root tip, resembling the sprout of a water caltrop base peel, about one or two inches long. Market people thus called it Golden Thread Hanging Shrimp, Cicada Belly Curcuma Root. Its skin is yellow-white with wrinkles, and the inside is yellow-red. When cut open, it clearly shows two layers, like a well fence, produced in Chongqing, Sichuan. Only those harvested in the current year are tender, small, and yellow. If left unharvested and collected the following year, they become old and dark, like Sanqi, known as Old Guang Curcuma Root. However, Old Curcuma Root is more effective in treating hemorrhagic syndrome, dispersing blood stasis, and reducing accumulation than the tender ones. For relieving depression and dispersing pain, even the tender yellow ones are effective. Recently, it has been rumored that the black ones are wild Curcuma Root, and the yellow ones are fake, mistakenly identified as Turmeric. However, this plant is originally wild. Turmeric has segmented skin, deep yellow flesh without halos, while Peng Curcuma is black and heartless, easily distinguishable. Although Old Curcuma Root is produced in Sichuan, it is now commonly called Guang Curcuma Root. The so-called Sichuan Curcuma Root is actually produced in Wenzhou, dark black in color, flat in shape, and also heartless, but not fragrant." The key reason involved is the Three Feudatories' Rebellion in the early Qing Dynasty, which prevented Sichuan Chinese medicinals from being delivered outside the province in time, leading to the emergence of various substitutes. These substitutes were either local customary items or sources of Turmeric and Zedoary Rhizome, which were then used as Curcuma Root in medicine. The so-called Wenzhou Curcuma Root, Yellow Silk Curcuma Root, Gui Curcuma Root, Green Silk Curcuma Root, and even White Silk Curcuma Root, Yellow-White Silk Curcuma Root, and other specifications and varieties likely originated in this way.

The change in the medicinal part of Curcuma Root also occurred during the Qing Dynasty. The "Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao" states: "Curcuma Root, those grown in Sichuan are called Sichuan Curcuma Root, with roots resembling the belly of a mantis being genuine, while those used for dyeing yellow are Turmeric." The phrase "mantis belly" likely refers to the characteristics of the tuberous root, and the rhizome that can dye yellow is considered Turmeric, which aligns with today's medicinal usage. The switch to using the tuberous root of Curcuma Root for medicine may have two reasons: one is the need for medicinal merchants to promote, as mentioned by Cao Bingzhang, such as "golden coin hanging shrimp" and "cicada belly Curcuma Root," and the other is to avoid conflict with the medicinal parts of Turmeric.

2. Turmeric

Turmeric is also mentioned in the "Xinxiu Bencao," which records its efficacy as: "Pungent and bitter in taste, Great Cold (24th solar term), non-toxic. Mainly treats heart Fujie (SP14) accumulation, sudden fright, lowering qi breaking blood stasis, dispels wind-heat, reduces swelling, and is more potent than Curcuma Root." An annotation states: "The leaves and roots resemble Curcuma Root, the flowers grow from the root in spring, emerging with the seedlings, the flowers wither in summer, and there are no seeds. The roots come in yellow, green, and white colors, and the preparation method is the same as Curcuma Root. The Western Rong people call it '蒁藥.' Its taste is more bitter than pungent, similar to Curcuma Root, only differing in peanut." In terms of efficacy, the "Xinxiu" classifies Turmeric's medicinal property as Great Cold (24th solar term), which aligns with the "Benjing" statement that "its potency is stronger than Curcuma Root." According to Su Jing, the original plant of Turmeric is definitely not a part of Curcuma Root (Curcuma longa), but rather other plants of the same genus. As for the mention of the Western Rong people's "蒁藥," it will be discussed further in the Zedoary Rhizome section.

Su Jing mentions that Turmeric roots come in yellow, green, and white colors, which may include multiple plant species. The "Bencao Tujing" further describes: "The leaves are green, about one to two feet long and three to four inches wide, with oblique veins resembling small red banana leaves. The flowers are red and white, gradually withering by mid-autumn, and new leaves emerge in late spring. The flowers appear first, followed by the leaves, and there are no seeds. The roots are coiled, yellow, resembling Fresh Ginger Rhizome but round, with nodes. Some say the genuine ones are old ginger planted for over three years, which can produce flowers at the root base, similar to galangal. The root nodes are hard, with a pungent smell, and are found where ginger is planted. The roots are harvested in August, sliced, and dried in the sun." This likely refers to a Curcuma species that flowers before leaves, with peanut at the root, most fitting the description of Curcuma wenyujin, which Su Jing likely refers to as the yellow-rooted variety. Additionally, the gray-green cross-sectioned Curcuma phaeocaulis and the nearly white cross-sectioned Curcuma kwangsiensis and Curcuma chuanyujin C.K.Hsieh et H.Zhang may also be included in the Tang and Song Turmeric varieties.

If strictly adhering to Su Jing and Su Song's description that Turmeric "flowers grow from the root in spring," then Curcuma longa, which has peanut at the stem center, should be excluded. However, the "Zhenglei" depicts Yizhou Turmeric with flowers emerging from the stem center (Figure 2). Mr. Xie Zongwan suspects this might be Curcuma longa, but it remains uncertain. By the Ming Dynasty, this variety was gradually called "slice Turmeric." The "Bencao Gangmu" states: "Recently, those flat like Dried Ginger are called slice Turmeric, while those round like cicada bellies are called cicada belly Curcuma Root, both can be soaked in water for dyeing." According to Li Shi-zhen, Curcuma longa rhizomes that are plump like cicada bellies are used as Curcuma Root, while those shaped like Dried Ginger are sliced into "slice Turmeric." Whether this "slice Turmeric" was equivalent to Turmeric at the time is unknown, but it set the stage for the Qing Dynasty's use of this rhizome as Turmeric.

Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao states: "Turmeric was first recorded in Tang Bencao. Nowadays, it is cultivated in fields in Licheng County, Jiangxi, and sold elsewhere for dyeing yellow. Its shape resembles that of the canna lily, with roots like ginger, extremely yellow in color, and a slightly pungent taste." The entry for Curcuma Root in Wu's text mentions, "The variety used for dyeing yellow is Turmeric." This indicates that during the Qing Dynasty, Curcuma longa was the mainstream type of Turmeric used. However, besides this species, other varieties were also mixed in. The "Revised Weiyao Tiaobian" notes: "Seed Turmeric from Shaowu, Fujian, is yellow with a yellow-black skin, segmented, and wrinkled, considered the best. That produced in Sichuan, known as Sichuan Turmeric, is slightly inferior. Turmeric from the regions north and south of the Yangtze River is deep yellow and used as a pigment. The variety from Liuzhou, Guangxi, resembles a cicada's belly, deep yellow with black, is of lesser quality, and is used as a spice."

Regarding the medicinal properties of Turmeric, it must be noted that Su Jing stated that Curcuma Root is cold in nature, and Turmeric has the same effects as Curcuma Root but stronger, hence it is labeled as Great Cold (24th solar term). Chen Cang-qi disagreed with Su's view, determining the medicinal property of Turmeric as warm. Bencao Shiyi﹒Jiefen states: "The taste of Curcuma is bitter, and its color is green. Turmeric is pungent, warm, non-toxic, yellow in color, primarily used for breaking blood stasis and lowering qi. It is warm, not cold. Curcuma Root is bitter, cold, red in color, primarily used for horse diseases. These three substances are different and used differently." The notion that Turmeric is warm in nature has been widely followed by later generations. Rihuazi Bencao states "Turmeric, hot, non-toxic," and even today, Zhongguo Yaodian also considers the medicinal property of Turmeric as warm.

In fact, the claim that Turmeric is warm in nature stems from Chen Cang-qi's misunderstanding of old ginger as Turmeric. Since ginger is warm and hot in nature, he concluded that Turmeric is also warm. Chen stated: "The true Turmeric is old ginger that has been planted for more than three years, capable of flowering, with peanut-like roots, similar to galangal, with hard rhizomes and a pungent smell. It is found where ginger is planted, but is ultimately rare. It is hot in nature, not cold. Benjing's claim that it is cold is mistaken." This situation of passing off old ginger as Turmeric also existed in the Song dynasty. Su Song stated: "In recent years, many in the capital have planted ginger, and often Turmeric is sold, which is actually old ginger." However, these are merely counterfeit Turmeric. How can one deduce the medicinal properties of Turmeric based on those of Dried Ginger or Fresh Ginger Rhizome? Consider that today, the root of Curcuma longa is considered Curcuma Root, and the rhizome is considered Turmeric, with similar components, yet one is cold and the other hot, which is truly absurd.

3. Zedoary Rhizome

Although Bencao Shiyi first officially recorded Zedoary Rhizome, Su Jing had already mentioned this substance twice before in the entries for Curcuma Root and Turmeric, namely the "horse Curcuma" and "Curcuma medicine" mentioned above. The origin of the names "Curcuma" or "Zedoary Rhizome" is unclear. Bencao Shiyi also states: "One name is Zedoary, black in color. Another name is Curcuma, yellow in color. A third name is Bosha." Including "Bosha," these names are likely transliterations from a Central Asian language, and remain questionable pending further research.

First, consider Su Jing's perspective: "Curcuma Root, the Hu people call it horse Curcuma," "Turmeric, the Western Rong people call it Curcuma medicine." That is, Su Jing believed that Curcuma Root and Turmeric were considered the same by people from the Western Regions. In other words, Su Jing considered "Curcuma" as a general term for Curcuma Root and Turmeric, which explains why Xinxiu Bencao did not list Zedoary Rhizome separately. Coincidentally, in Buddhist scriptures translated during the Tang dynasty, there are also references to Turmeric and Curcuma Root as the same substance, with the slight difference that Turmeric is often called "yellow ginger." For example, Yijing's translation of "Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya Yakṣa" mentions: "What are root medicines? They are Cyperus seeds, Acorus, yellow ginger, Fresh Ginger Rhizome, giant typhonium rhizome." Baosiwei's translation of "Guanyin Bodhisattva Ruyi Moni Dharani Sutra" mentions Curcuma Root, with a small note stating "also known as yellow ginger." According to Mr. Chen Ming in "Exotic Medicines from Foreign Lands: Unearthed Documents and Western Medicine," yellow ginger refers to Turmeric. Bodhiruci's translation of "Amoghapāśakalparāja Sūtra" mentions "橿黃" (jiang huang), Sanskrit haridra, translated into Chinese as "诃 chestnut 陀罗."

Chen Cang-qi opposed Su Jing's view of using "Curcuma" as a general term for Curcuma Root and Turmeric. The fundamental reason is that Chen mistakenly identified the rhizome of Zingiber officinale Rosc. as Turmeric. Thus, plants like Curcuma wenyujin, which Su Jing originally used as Turmeric, could not be categorized. Therefore, Chen Cang-qi classified all these plants as "Curcuma." This explains the discussion in Bencao Shiyi under the Turmeric entry: "(Turmeric) breaks blood stasis and lowers qi. It is also found in the Western Regions, similar to Curcuma Root and Curcuma medicine. As Su attached, it is Curcuma medicine, not Turmeric. Su could not distinguish between the two. It also states: Curcuma, bitter and warm in taste, primarily used for malign qi, sudden attacks, heart pain, and blood and qi accumulation. Su stated that Turmeric is Curcuma, and also that Curcuma Root is Hu Curcuma. Thus, the three substances are not different, collectively called Curcuma, with similar effects and properties."

Both Qianjin Fang and Waitai Miyao followed Su Jing's view and did not use Zedoary Rhizome. Su Song of the Song Dynasty also noted this phenomenon, stating, "(This substance) was not used in ancient medical prescriptions." Physicians from the mid to late Tang Dynasty began to accept Chen Cang-qi's opinion, treating Zedoary Rhizome as a separate medicinal substance. For example, Leigong Paozhi Lun and Yaoxing Lun started discussing the issue of Zedoary Rhizome. The records of Rihuazi Bencao from the Five Dynasties period mention the name and reality of Zedoary Rhizome. The entry for Zedoary Rhizome states: "This is the root of Turmeric from the south." The Turmeric entry states: "Those grown in Hainan are called Zedoary Rhizome, while those grown in Jiangnan are called Turmeric." According to this, the Zedoary Rhizome of that time was likely the Guangxi Zedoary Rhizome Curcuma kwangsiensis from the Guangdong and Guangxi regions, while the Wenzhou Curcuma Root Curcuma wenyujin from Jiangnan (such as Wenzhou, Zhejiang) was still used as Turmeric, consistent with the Tang Dynasty practice.

In the Song Dynasty, the medicinal status of Zedoary Rhizome was fully recognized. The Kaibao Bencao officially recorded this herb. Su Song described it as: "Zedoary Rhizome grows in Xirong and various regions of Guangnan. Nowadays, it can also be found in Jiangsu and Zhejiang. It sprouts in March in the fields, with stems as thick as coins, two to three feet high, and leaves that are greenish-white, one to two feet long and about five inches wide, somewhat resembling galangal. In May, it produces spike-like flowers, yellow with a slight purple at the tip. The root resembles Fresh Ginger Rhizome, with the rhizome beneath the root, shaped like a chicken or duck egg, varying in size." Combining the two illustrations of Wenzhou and Duanzhou Zedoary Rhizome in the Zheng Lei (Figures 3 and 4), it is likely that Curcuma wenyujin from Wenzhou and Curcuma kwangsiensis from Guangxi were the mainstream varieties of Zedoary Rhizome. The use of Curcuma wenyujin as Zedoary Rhizome in medicine may be related to the higher frequency of Zedoary Rhizome usage compared to Turmeric after the Song Dynasty. Using the Siku Quanshu retrieval system, it was found that Turmeric (including sliced Turmeric and piece Turmeric) appears 273 times in the Puji Fang, while Zedoary Rhizome (including Zedoary Rhizome, Eshu, Emou, Pengzhu, Pengshu, Pengshu) appears 605 times. For economic reasons, merchants might have replaced Turmeric with Zedoary Rhizome.

The varieties of Zedoary Rhizome did not change much. Apart from the two mentioned above, Benjing Fengyuan mentions "Pengzhu is large, with a bluish-black color," which should refer to the modern Curcuma phaeocaulis. As for the "Mashu" and "Shuyao" mentioned by Su Jing, the Kaibao Bencao records that Zedoary Rhizome from Xirong might be imported varieties such as Curcuma aromatica Salisb. and Curcuma zedoaria Rose.

4. Sliced Turmeric

Before discussing sliced Turmeric, let's briefly summarize the previous conclusions:

Su Jing considered Curcuma longa as Curcuma Root. We do not know Su Jing's reasoning, but among the domestic Curcuma species, this variety has the highest Turmeric content and best fits the description in the Zhou Li of "harmonizing Yu Chang," which refers to the need for dyeing wine, possibly being a significant reason. This Curcuma Root was used until the Ming Dynasty, with the rhizome being the primary medicinal part. In the Qing Dynasty, the tuberous roots of various Curcuma species were falsely claimed as Curcuma Root, and Curcuma longa became just one of many Curcuma Root varieties, also using the tuberous root.

Similarly, Su Jing considered Curcuma wenyujin as the mainstream Turmeric, a status that persisted until the Five Dynasties. By the Song Dynasty, this species was already used as Zedoary Rhizome, and it is uncertain whether it continued to be the mainstream Turmeric. Judging from the name, since Turmeric is named after ginger, the medicinal part should be the rhizome, conforming to the shape of ginger, and the color should primarily be yellow. Therefore, starting from the Ming Dynasty, the sliced rhizome of Curcuma longa, the most yellow among Curcuma species, was naturally called "sliced Turmeric." By the Qing Dynasty, when Curcuma Root began to use the tuberous root, whether sliced or not, the rhizome of Curcuma longa logically became Turmeric.

Although Chen Cang-qi referred to the rhizomes of plants such as Curcuma wenyujin as "蒁," according to the official opinion of the Tang Dynasty, there was no separate medicinal material known as Zedoary Rhizome. During the Five Dynasties period, Curcuma kwangsiensis first became the medicinal Zedoary Rhizome. Subsequently, due to the higher frequency of use of Zedoary Rhizome compared to Turmeric, Curcuma wenyujin and others were also included in the category of Zedoary Rhizome.

From a literal understanding, Turmeric slices are simply slices of Turmeric. Therefore, any rhizome of a plant that has been used as Turmeric medicine can potentially become "Turmeric slices." During the Republic of China period, there were approximately two types of "Turmeric slices":

(1) Curcuma wenyujin was the mainstream variety of Turmeric in the Tang Dynasty. Although this variety later became the source of Wen Zedoary Rhizome and Wen Curcuma Root, its rhizome was still sliced into Turmeric slices in later generations, which is also the only source of Turmeric slices stipulated by the Zhongguo Yaodian. In volume 25 of Zhengzhi Zhunsheng, the Shujin Tang for treating arm pain that cannot be lifted uses Turmeric slices, with a note stating "if unavailable, use tender Zedoary Rhizome instead," likely referring to Wen Zedoary Rhizome. This suggests that the application of this type of Turmeric slice may date back to the Ming Dynasty. The "Zengding Weiyao Tiaobian" states: "Turmeric slices and seed Turmeric differ in size and color. Turmeric slices are six to seven times larger than seed Turmeric, cut into thick slices, pale yellow with black edges, and have fibrous roots. They are produced in Chaozhou, Guangdong, and Wenzhou, Zhejiang." The variety produced in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, should be this type.

(2) Curcuma longa has been the authentic Turmeric since the Qing Dynasty. Its slices were already referred to as "Turmeric slices" in the Bencao Gangmu. The Bencaozheng Yi states: "There are indeed two types of Turmeric in the market today. One is called Turmeric slices, which are cut into thick slices and then dried, resembling dried ginger in shape, not yellow in color, and not hard in texture, used for treating wind-cold dampness. The other type is firm and shiny, deep yellow in color, similar to Curcuma Root, used for dyeing and not for medicinal purposes." Zhang Shan-lei mentioned that the former type is Curcuma wenyujin, and the latter deep yellow type is Curcuma longa. As Zhang stated, this type is not used as Turmeric slices in prescriptions.

bubble_chart Historical Evolution of Authentic Sources

As mentioned in the variety identification section, Curcuma Root, Turmeric, and Zedoary Rhizome from the Western regions are different species and unrelated to local varieties, so they are not discussed here.

Apart from foreign imports, before the Ming Dynasty, Curcuma longa was mainly used as the authentic Curcuma Root in China, with Sichuan being the primary production area, as detailed in the previous section. However, during this period, small amounts of Curcuma kwangsiensis were used as Curcuma Root in Guangdong and Guangxi, as depicted in the "Zhenglei" illustration "Chaozhou Curcuma Root." Additionally, the "Ming Yitongzhi" mentions that Luocheng County in Liuzhou produced fragrant Curcuma Root, which should be a Curcuma species, not Tulipa gesneriana. Since the Qing Dynasty, various Curcuma species have been mixed as Curcuma Root, as previously cited in the "Zengding Weiyao Tiaobian." The "Yaowu Chuchan Bian" records Curcuma Root: "Produced in Sichuan as the authentic source."

Turmeric is mentioned in the Qianjin Yifang as coming from Sichuan, but according to Su Jing's plant description, this Turmeric does not seem to be Curcuma longa but another species of the same genus. The Bencao Tujing states: "Today, it is widely found in Jiangsu, Guangdong, and Sichuan." The "Zhenglei" depicts Turmeric from Lizhou and Yizhou, located in present-day Hunan and Hubei, with the specific variety unknown. Since the Qing Dynasty, Curcuma longa has been the primary Turmeric used, with Sichuan-produced varieties being superior.

Zedoary Rhizome was originally considered authentic when produced in Guangdong and Guangxi. The "Rihuazi" states: "Turmeric produced in Hainan is called Peng Zedoary Rhizome." The "Kaibao" mentions that it "grows in various prefectures of Guangnan." The "Baoqing Siming Zhi" records that ships from Hainan, Champa, Xiping, Quanzhou, and Guangzhou carried Peng Zedoary Rhizome. Volume 63 of the "Songshi Shishi Leiyuan" states: "In Lingnan, green ginger has roots that resemble clasped hands, with side shoots growing like ginger, often as large as taro. Southerners dry the central part and call it Peng Zedoary Rhizome, while northerners refer to it as Peng Eshu. The character '荗' is not found in dictionaries, and it is also called '朮.' It is said that when someone suffers from mild dysentery, grinding green ginger and boiling it with wine can cure the illness, as Peng Zedoary Rhizome harmonizes the qi." This also refers to Zedoary Rhizome from Guangdong and Guangxi, likely varieties such as Curcuma kwangsiensis and Curcuma phaeocaulis. Curcuma wenyujin, produced in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, began to be used as Zedoary Rhizome during the Song Dynasty, as Su Song mentioned, "Nowadays, it is found in Jiangsu and Zhejiang." The "Zhenglei" also depicts Wenzhou Peng Eshu. The production areas of Zedoary Rhizome have not changed significantly over time. The "Yaowu Chuchan Bian" states: "It is produced in Nanning and Tianzhou."

slices of Turmeric are slices of Curcuma wenyujin, with those produced in Zhejiang being of superior quality, as previously mentioned.