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Ephedra is the dried herbaceous stem of the Ephedra sinica Stapf, Ephedra intermedia Schrenk et C. A. Mey., or Ephedra equisetina Bge. of the Ephedraceae family. Ephedra sinica is mainly produced in Datong, Hunyuan, and Shanyang in Shanxi; Yu County, Huai'an, and Weichang in Hebei; Xinjiang; Inner Mongolia; and also distributed in Jilin, Liaoning, Shaanxi, and Henan provinces. Ephedra intermedia is mainly produced in Gansu, Qinghai, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang, and also distributed in Shanxi, Hebei, Liaoning, and Jilin. Ephedra equisetina is mainly produced in Shaanxi, Hebei, Ningxia, Shanxi, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang.

Materia medica research suggests that the ancient use of Ephedra has always been from the Ephedra genus of the Ephedraceae family, with Ephedra sinica likely being the mainstream medicinal variety. The distribution of Ephedra plants is quite extensive, and the authentic production areas emphasized in materia medica works from different periods vary significantly. From the Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Ming Dynasty, the area between Kaifeng and Zhengzhou in Henan was considered the best. From the late Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China, Datong in Shanxi gradually became recognized as the authentic production area, and more recently, Inner Mongolia has been producing more.

bubble_chart Variety Identification

Ephedra is recorded in the Bencao Jing and is also used in the Wuwei Medical Bamboo Slips. It is particularly used in the "Treatise on Cold Damage and Miscellaneous Diseases." The Bencao Jing states its functions as "inducing sweating to relieve the exterior and stopping cough with dyspnea." In its use, Tao Hongjing suggested "boiling it first for one or two boils, removing the foam on top, as the foam can cause irritation." These descriptions align with the properties of ephedrine in inducing sweating, relieving asthma, stimulating the Zhongshu (GV7) point, and affecting heart and blood vessel activity. This indicates that the ancient use of Ephedra was indeed from the Ephedra genus containing ephedrine.

Ephedra has many aliases. In the Bencao Jing, it is called Longsha, and in the Bielu, it is referred to as Beixiang and Beiyan. The Guangya states, "Longsha is Ephedra," and "Ephedra stem is dog bone." The origins of these names are unclear. Li Shizhen said, "The various names are quite inexplicable, some say its taste is numbing, its color is yellow, but it is uncertain whether this is true." Mr. Xia Weiying, in his "Notes on the Interpretation of Plant Names," said, "Yomo means small, and ma and mo are similar in sound, likely also meaning small. The naming of Ephedra may be due to its small and yellow flowers." According to the Fischer Euphorbia Root entry in the Kaibao, it is noted, "(Fischer Euphorbia Root) along with Ephedra, tangerine peel, Evodia Fruit, Pinellia, and Immature Orange Fruit, are the six aged herbs." Ephedra material turns from green to yellow after long storage, and its stem feels rough to the touch, which may be the origin of its name.

The "Youyang Zazu" continuation volume 9 first describes the plant morphology of Ephedra: "Ephedra stems bloom at the tips, with small, yellow, clustered flowers. The seeds are like palmleaf raspberry fruit and are edible. It withers like grass in winter and turns green again in spring." Ephedra seeds are berry-like, with the false perianth developing into a leathery false seed coat surrounding the seed, and the outermost layer being a red, fleshy bract, juicy and edible, commonly known as "Ephedra fruit." Among the common Ephedra species, only Ephedra sinica has female cones solitary at the branch tips, most closely matching Duan Chengshi's description of "blooming at the stem tips," while other species have flowers growing at the nodes.

Bencao Tujing states: "The seedlings sprout in spring, and by the fifth month of summer, they grow to about a foot in height. At the tip, there are yellow flowers, and the fruit resembles Lily Bulb petals but smaller, also similar to Chinese Honeylocust Fruit seeds, with a sweet taste and a slight Ephedra scent. The outer skin is red, the inner seed is black, and the roots are purple-red. It is commonly said that there are two types, male and female. The female type blooms in the third and fourth months and bears fruit in the sixth month, while the male type does not flower or bear fruit. After the Beginning of Autumn (13th solar term), the stems are harvested and dried in the shade to preserve their green color." From Su Song's description, whether it is dioecious or the size of the plant, it closely resembles today's Ephedra sinica. However, according to the illustrations of Ephedra from Tongzhou and Maozhou in "Zhenglei" (Figure 1), there is no doubt that it belongs to the Ephedra genus, but the specific species is difficult to determine. Based on the distribution of this genus, only Scouring Rush Herb Ephedra (Ephedra equisetina) is found in Tongzhou, Shaanxi (now Dali), while in Maozhou, Sichuan (now Maowen County) and its surrounding areas, the more common species are the dioecious dwarf Ephedra (Ephedra minuta Florin. var. dioeca C.Y. Cheng) and single-seeded Ephedra (Ephedra monosperma Gmel. Ex Mey.). It is uncertain whether the illustrations in "Zhenglei" depict these species.

Throughout history, the Ephedra used has always been from the Ephedra genus, but there are occasional records of confusion due to similar appearances. For example, in Volume 11 of Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao, the entry on Ephedra states: "It is also found in Nan'an, Jiangxi, where locals consider it to be Scouring Rush Herb, which shares the same form and properties as Ephedra, hence it can also induce sweating and release flesh." According to the illustration provided, it is actually Equiseticum ramosissimum Desf. from the Scouring Rush Herb family. This plant closely resembles Ephedra in form. In the "Erya·Shicao," Guo Pu's annotation quotes Mao's commentary: "It is like Dipsacus, with joints at every inch, and can regrow when plucked." This description matches Equiseticum ramosissimum. In the same entry, Zheng Qiao notes: "It looks like Ephedra and is also called Dipsacus; its joints can regrow after being plucked." This indicates that Equiseticum ramosissimum resembles Ephedra but is not Ephedra itself. Thus, Zheng Qiao did not confuse the two, and this might be an oversight by Wu Qijun.

bubble_chart Historical Changes in Authentic Production Areas

There are about 15 species of Ephedra plants in China, widely distributed except in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River and the Pearl River Basin. They are more abundant in the northwestern provinces, Yunnan, and Sichuan. Different materia medica works from various periods emphasize different authentic production areas. The Bencao Jing and Mingyi Bielu state: "Ephedra grows in Jin and Hedong." The Fanzi Jiran mentions: "It comes from Hanzhong and Sanfu," referring to areas in Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, and Shaanxi. Tao Hongjing notes: "The best Ephedra now comes from Qingzhou, Pengcheng, Xingyang, and Zhongmu, with a green color and abundant foam. It is also found in Sichuan, but of inferior quality." This aligns with the Shuijing Zhu, Volume 22, which states: "North of the Putianze in Zhongmu County, bordering Yangwu, the marsh is rich in Ephedra grass." Zhongmu corresponds to present-day Zhongmu and Tangyin in Henan.

The Tang Dynasty's Xinxiu Bencao states: "Ephedra is abundant near Lutaizhou in Zhengzhou and the sandy shores of the Guan River in Shaanxi. The green and Xu varieties are no longer used, with the most found in Tongzhou's Shayan." This indicates that during the early Tang Dynasty, Ephedra production was concentrated in Henan and Shaanxi. Further references from Qianjin Yifang, Yuanhe Junxian Tuzhi, and Tongdian provide similar accounts. For example, the Tongdian mentions: "Xingyang County tributes 20 jin of Ephedra. Now Zhengzhou."

In the Song Dynasty, the best Ephedra came from Kaifeng Prefecture in Henan. The Kaibao Bencao states: "The best now comes from Zhongmu, which is tributed annually by Kaifeng Prefecture." The Bencao Tujing notes: "It is abundant near the capital (referring to Kaifeng), with the best from Xingyang and Zhongmu." The Bencao Yanyi adds: "Ephedra from Zhengzhou is of high quality." According to the Song Shi, Volume 85, Kaifeng Prefecture annually tributes Ephedra and Sour Jujube, with Kaifeng contributing 15 jin and Zhengzhou 10 jin, as recorded in the Yuanfeng Jiuyu Zhi. The Zheng Lei specifically illustrates Ephedra from Tongzhou in Shaanxi and Maozhou in Sichuan, though the reason is unclear—it might be based on earlier illustrations rather than Song Dynasty findings.

The Ming Dynasty's Bencao Mengquan states: "Ephedra grows in Qingzhou and Pengcheng, with the best from Xingyang and Zhongmu." The Shantang Sikao, Volume 16, mentions: "Cibot Rhizome Mountain is behind the Zhongmu County government in Kaifeng Prefecture, producing Ephedra." The Ming Yitong Zhi lists Ephedra as a local product of Kaifeng Prefecture, with a note "produced in Zhongmu County," emphasizing the importance of Henan's production.

According to local chronicles compiled during the Qing Dynasty, provinces producing Ephedra, besides Henan, included Shandong, Shaanxi, Yunnan, Beijing, and Inner Mongolia. Surprisingly, the "Shanxi Tongzhi" (General Gazetteer of Shanxi), which later became a major source of Ephedra, did not mention its production. The "Weiyao Tiaobian" from the Republic of China era states: "Ephedra, originally from Jin (Shanxi), is now found in Yingyang, Bianzhou, Pengcheng, and other places." Cao Bingzhang added: "Ephedra is harvested in the ninth and tenth months. The best quality, with a green-yellow exterior and red interior, comes from Datong Prefecture, Daizhou, and Biancheng in Shanxi. The next best comes from Lingqiu County in Taiyuan and Wutai Mountain. Shaanxi produces finer varieties, while Sichuan's Huazhou produces tender yellow ones, both of slightly lower quality. Shandong and Henan also produce inferior varieties. Only the thin and hard varieties from Guandong are not used medicinally." Furthermore, according to the "Medicinal Trade Regulations" of the Xi'an Medicinal Trade Association in 1940, both Ephedra and Ephedra Root entries under the production section state: "The best quality comes from Datong in the northwestern provinces." By this time, Shanxi had completely replaced Henan as the authentic production area for Ephedra, which is consistent with the modern situation. As for today's Inner Mongolian Ephedra production, the earliest record is found in the "Qinding Rehe Zhi" (Imperial Gazetteer of Rehe), Volume 94, quoting the "Yuan Yitong Zhi" (Yuan Dynasty Unified Gazetteer): "(Daning Road) Daning, Huihe, Wuping, and Longshan counties, as well as Gaozhou and Songzhou, produce Ephedra."