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Currently, Cassia Bark refers to the dried bark of the Cinnamomum cassia Presl, a plant of the Lauraceae family, while Cinnamon Twig refers to the dried young branches of the same plant. Cassia Bark and Cinnamon Twig are mainly produced in Guiping, Rongxian, Pingnan, Dayaoshan, Shangsi, Ningming, and Guixian in Guangxi, as well as in Guangxing, Deqing, Xinyi, Qinxian, and Fangcheng in Guangdong. They are also distributed in Fujian, Taiwan, Hainan, and Yunnan, with the majority being cultivated. Internationally, they are primarily produced in Vietnam.

Materia medica research suggests that the ancient medicinal "Gui" (cinnamon) referred to plants of the Cinnamomum genus in the Lauraceae family. The main types mentioned in materia medica include Jun Gui, Mu Gui, and Gui. In medical prescriptions, Cassia Bark, Cinnamon Twig, and Cassia Central Bark were used. Due to the overlap between materia medica names and prescription names, and the fact that the same name could refer to different things in different periods and texts, much confusion arose. To address this issue, the Northern Song government standardized the terminology. Lin Dang unified the "Gui" drugs in classics like the "Treatise on Cold Damage Diseases" as Cinnamon Twig, while Su Song consolidated the three types of "Gui" in the "Bencao Tujing" into one entry, referring mainly to Cassia Bark (Cinnamomum cassia) and Cinnamomum bejolghota. Unlike later periods, the "Cinnamon Twig" of the Northern Song referred to the bark of the branches of these "Gui" plants, not the young branches, and the dried bark was not used medicinally at that time. Starting from the Southern Song, physicians noted the functional differences between the bark (including dried bark and branch bark) and the young branches of "Gui." Thus, during the Song and Yuan periods, the bark was called "Cassia Bark" and was used as a tonic for kidney fire, with dried bark gradually becoming dominant. The young branches were initially called "Liu Gui" and later renamed "Cinnamon Twig," used as a diaphoretic, a practice that continues to this day. Traditionally, Cassia Bark from Vietnam is considered the highest quality, while domestically, the most authentic products come from Guangdong and Guangxi.

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In ancient times, there were three main uses for cinnamon: (1) As a seasoning in food. The Book of Rites·Tan Gong states: "In times of mourning and illness, when eating meat and drinking wine, there must be the addition of plant flavors, which refers to ginger and cinnamon." Zheng's annotation: "To enhance the fragrance and taste." The Annals of Lü Buwei·Original Flavors states: "Among the harmonious flavors, Yangpu's ginger and Zhaoyao's cinnamon are the best." Cinnamon is not only mentioned alongside ginger but also used with another seasoning, pepper, as seen in the Chu Ci: "Mixing Shen pepper and Jun cinnamon, how can it only be the fragrance of Hui and Zhi?"; "Steaming Hui dishes with orchid bases, offering cinnamon wine and pepper sauce"; "Pepper and cinnamon are arranged to overturn, with utmost sincerity and return to honesty," among other lines. Additionally, Han Feizi's story of buying the casket and returning the pearl mentions "a casket made of magnolia wood, scented with cinnamon and pepper." (2) As a medicinal ingredient. The Shuowen states: "Cinnamon, a tree from the south of the Yangtze River, is the chief of all medicines." The Jijiu Pian·Moxibustion, Acupuncture, and Harmonizing Medicines to Expel Evil Spirits mentions "Sichuan Lovage Rhizome, Magnolia Bark, cinnamon, and gourd." Guo Pu's Shan Hai Jing Zan states: "Cinnamon grows in the southern regions, standing out on high peaks. Its flowers are widespread and flourishing, with frosty beauty and dewy tips. Its qi dominates all medicines, standing tall like clouds." Not only is it recorded in the Bencao Jing, but it is also extensively used in existing Han dynasty medical prescriptions, such as the Wushi'er Bingfang unearthed from Mawangdui, Yangsheng Fang, Zaliaofang, Juyan Hanjian, Wuwei Medical Slips, and others. (3) As a medicine for immortals. The Liexian Zhuan mentions Peng Zu: "He often consumed cinnamon and Ganoderma, skilled in conducting exercises to move qi"; Fan Li: "He enjoyed taking cinnamon and drinking water"; Gui Fu: "He often consumed cinnamon and mallow, mixed with turtle brain." The Baopuzi·Inner Chapters·Immortal Medicines states: "Cinnamon can be steamed with onion juice to make water, can be mixed with bamboo juice for consumption, or can be combined with the brain of the Xianzhi Jun, or said to be turtle, and taken. After seven years, one can walk on water and achieve immortality." It also states: "Zhao Tazi took cinnamon for twenty years, grew hair on his feet, could walk five hundred miles a day, and had the strength to lift a thousand jin." Wang Jia's Shiyi Ji quotes the immortal Han Zhong's poem on gathering herbs: "The cinnamon of the dark river, its fruit as big as a date, if one obtains and eats it, they will age after heaven."

According to the "Hanyu Da Zidian," "Gui" can refer to four types of plants: (1) Cassia Bark of the Lauraceae family; (2) Sweet Osmanthus Flower of the Oleaceae family; (3) Bay Laurel of the Lauraceae family; (4) A type of bamboo, namely Gui bamboo. So, which type of "Gui" is referred to in the literature for edible, medicinal, and divine uses? Based on existing evidence, when the literature simply mentions "Gui," it most likely refers to plants of the Cinnamomum genus in the Lauraceae family, for four reasons:

(1) As a spice for flavoring, "Gui" has been used since the pre-Qin period to the present day. Although the specific varieties may have changed, their source should all be plants of the Cinnamomum genus in the Lauraceae family.

(2) The "Lüshi Chunqiu" already noted that "under the Cinnamon Twig, there are no miscellaneous trees" (this sentence is cited by Song dynasty scholars from the "Lüshi Chunqiu"). The "Yiwu Zhi" states: "Gui shrubs grow purely among their own kind," and the "Guang Zhi" also says: "Gui grows in Hepu, always on high mountain ridges, evergreen in both winter and summer. They form their own forests, with no other trees mixed in." The "Mengxi Bitan" records: "The 'Yang Wengong Tan Yuan' mentions that the Southern Tang emperor suffered from summer heat, and Xu Kai ordered to scatter Gui powder in the brick seams, which killed all the overnight grass." It also quotes the "Leigong Paozhi Lun": "If a Gui nail is driven into the root of a tree, the tree will die." The "Bencao Gangmu" states: "The 'Erya' calls it Qin because it can harm other trees." These descriptions all refer to the phenomenon of plant exclusivity. Mr. Miao Qiyu's explanation in "The Annotated Records of Lingnan Plants from the Han to the Six Dynasties" is very clear: the bark, twigs, leaves, flower stalks, and fruits of the Gui tree (specifically Cinnamomum cassia according to Miao) all contain cassia bark oil, with the main component being cinnamaldehyde. The bark contains 70-90%, and the newly formed fruits and flower stalks contain even more. This is a volatile aromatic substance that can inhibit the growth of other tree species. Over time, this leads to changes in the plant community structure, eventually forming pure Gui forests. This phenomenon has been noted in the "Yiwu Zhi" and other texts. Therefore, based on the ecological descriptions of Gui, it can be confirmed as a plant of the Cinnamomum genus in the Lauraceae family.

(3) From the perspective of the character form of "Gui," the "Shuowen Jiezi" states: "From wood, with the sound of Gui." The "Youyang Zazu" (Volume 9) states: "Generally, the veins of leaves have one ridge, but Gui leaves have three ridges." Fan Chengda's "Gui Hai Yu Heng Zhi: Zhi Cao Mu" also says: "Most leaves have one central vein, but Gui has two, shaped like a Gui tablet. The creators of the character might have been inspired by this. The leaves taste spicy and sweet, similar to the bark but more fragrant, and beauties enjoy chewing them." Wu Qijun also noted: "The Gui trees in Mengzi have glossy, tough green leaves with only three ridges, concave on the front and convex on the back, with no fine lines, and pointed and square like a Gui tablet. This confirms the ancient saying that 'Gui' is named after 'Gui' (a jade tablet)." Whether the right part of the ancient character "Gui" (圭) was inspired by the leaf shape is uncertain, but the discussion of three-ridged leaves in the "Youyang Zazu" and later texts indeed describes the characteristic three-veined leaves of the Cinnamomum genus, as emphasized in the "Zhenglei Bencao" illustrations of "Gui" (Figure 1).

(4) Medical texts unearthed from the No. 3 tomb at Mawangdui frequently mention the use of Gui. Fortunately, small pieces of Gui were also found in the No. 1 tomb, with the rough bark (cork layer) removed, identified as Cinnamomum chekiangensis Nakai of the Cinnamomum genus.

Although it can be concluded that plants of the Cinnamomum genus were the primary source of medicinal and edible Gui in ancient times, there are still some unresolved issues regarding Gui, especially the distinction between Cassia Bark of the Cinnamomum genus in the Lauraceae family and Sweet Osmanthus Flower of the Osmanthus genus in the Oleaceae family, as well as the sources of Jun Gui, Mu Gui, and medicinal Cinnamon Twig. These topics will be further discussed below.

The literature on cinnamon-related drugs is unprecedentedly chaotic, with one of the most significant reasons being the inconsistency between the materia medica names and prescription names of these drugs. The Bencao Jing records "Jun Gui" and "Mu Gui," while the Bielu adds an entry for "Gui." The exact relationship among these three has long been a subject of debate. Since the Han dynasty, the main names used in prescriptions have been Cassia Bark, Cinnamon Twig, Cassia Central Bark, and occasionally Guan Gui, which are quite different from the materia medica names. Not only is there confusion between materia medica names and prescription names, but the same drug name can also refer to different substances in different periods and texts. Starting from the Song dynasty, the sweet osmanthus flower from the Oleaceae family was also included in the materia medica entries for Gui, adding further confusion to the classification of cinnamon-related drugs. Drawing on the works of contemporary scholars, such as Makoto Mayanagi's "Lin Dang et al. changed the cinnamon-related drug names in Zhang Zhong-jing's medical texts to Cinnamon Twig" and Song Liren's "Research on Gui," this paper attempts to resolve these disputes.

1. The Jun Gui, Mu Gui, and Gui in Materia Medica

(1) Jun Gui

Jun Gui appears twice in "Li Sao": "Mixing Shen pepper with Jun Gui, how can it only be tied with Hui and Chai", "Straightening Jun Gui to tie Hui, seeking the continuous Hu rope." In these lines, whether "Jun Gui" is one or two things, "Jun" and "Gui", has been debated by scholars through the ages, with no need for extensive records. The Mawangdui Wushi'er Bingfang and "Yang Sheng Fang" both use this item, written as "Qun Gui", which not only proves that "Jun Gui" is a proper noun but also greatly aids in clarifying the origin of Jun Gui.

Jun Gui can also be written as "Jun Gui", as seen in the Renhe Temple manuscript of Xinxiu Bencao, "Yixin Fang", and "Materia Medica and Names". The entry for Jun Gui by Su Jing states: "Jun is the name of a bamboo, the ancient prescription used Tong Gui." Bencao Shiyi further suspects that the "Jun Gui" in Bencao Jing is a corruption of "Tong Gui", stating: "Ancient prescriptions had Tong Gui, the character resembling Jun, later people mistakenly wrote it, and it became customary, even in books, it was followed." Mori Risshi noticed in Qianjin Yaofang Volume 2, for treating dead fetus in the womb, "four inches of Tong Gui" was used, believing this to be "the legacy of the ancient prescription as mentioned by Su Jing". Now, with the Mawangdui documents using "Qun Gui", it is clear that the speculations of Su Jing, Chen Cangqi, and Mori Risshi are unfounded. As for the "Tong Gui" in "Qianjin", it is actually a corruption of "Jun Gui", not an antagonism.

Whether written as "Jun Gui" or "Jun Gui", its original character is "Qun Gui". Wang Niansun's explanation in "Guangya Shuzheng·Shi Cao" is the most insightful: "Jun means round, as 'Shuowen' says: round is called Qun, square is called Jing. Thus, Qun and round are close in sound and meaning. Arrow bamboo is small and round, hence called Jun. Bamboo round is called Jun, so Gui that is round like bamboo is also called Jun. Mingyi Bielu says: Jun Gui is exactly round like bamboo." According to Bielu, Jun Gui "grows in the valleys and cliffs of Jiaozhi and Guilin, boneless, exactly round like bamboo. Harvested at the Beginning of Autumn (13th solar term)." "Shan Hai Jing" states: "Within the South Sea, there are Heng Mountain, Jun Mountain, and Gui Mountain." Guo Pu notes on Gui Mountain: "There is Jun Gui, Gui is round like bamboo, see Materia Medica." Thus, Wang Niansun's explanation of "Jun Gui" is not based on a superficial interpretation, but from a botanical standpoint, no Cinnamomum species truly meets the standard of "exactly round like bamboo", hence Tao Hongjing said: "The 'Shu Du Fu' says Jun Gui by the cliff, commonly not seen as exactly round like bamboo, only young branches broken and rolled into a circle, still used as Gui, not true Jun Gui. The 'Xian Jing' uses Jun Gui, saying triple layers are good, clearly not today's Gui, must be another thing, should be further investigated."

It is also from the "Ji Zhu" that various explanations for the botanical source of "Jun Gui" began:

"Xin Xiu" says: "Jun Gui leaves resemble persimmon leaves, with three longitudinal lines, smooth and glossy on both sides without hair." Also says: "Now note there are two types of Gui, cassia bark slightly different, if Jun Gui old bark is hard and board-like without flesh, completely unusable. Its small branches thin and rolled, two or three layers, sometimes called Jun Gui, sometimes called Tong Gui." Also says: "Jun is the name of a bamboo, the ancient prescription used Tong Gui, hence saying triple layers are good. The Tong Gui also has two or three layers rolled, leaves resembling persimmon leaves, with three lines, texture tight and thin like bamboo. Both large and small branch barks are Jun, but large branch bark cannot be rolled multiple layers, taste very bland, not used in medicine. Now only comes from Shaozhou."

Bencao Shiyi believes: "Jun Gui, Mu Gui, Cassia Central Bark, the above three colors, are all the same thing."

Shu Bencao·Tujing says: "Jun Gui, leaves resemble persimmon leaves but are pointed and narrow, smooth and clean, white flowers with yellow stamens, blooms in April, fruits in May, tree bark green-yellow, thin and rolled like a tube, also called Tong Gui. The thick and hard, bland-tasting ones are called Ban Gui, not used in medicine."

Bencao Tujing states: "Now, what is produced in Lingbiao includes Tong Gui, Cassia Bark, Cassia Central Bark, Guan Gui, and Ban Gui, but medical practitioners rarely distinguish between them. According to old texts, Jun Gui is perfectly round like bamboo, with two or three layers, which is what we now call Tong Gui. The characters for 'Tong' and 'Jun' are similar, possibly a transcription error, or it is said to be Cassia Bark." It also says: "Referring to old annotations, it is said that Jun Gui has leaves similar to persimmon leaves, with three veins in the middle, a tight texture, thin like bamboo, and both large and small branches have bark that is tubular, similar to what is now produced in Binzhou."

"Pi Ya" Volume 14 states: "Cinnamon is the chief of medicines. All tree leaves have one ridge, but cinnamon has three ridges. There are three types of cinnamon: the first is called Jun Gui, its leaves resemble those of the persimmon but are sharper, smoother, and cleaner. This is the cinnamon referred to in the 'Ode to Shu' as 'Jun Gui by the cliff.' The second is called Mu Gui, its leaves are like those of the loquat but larger. This is the cinnamon referred to in the 'Er Ya' as 'Qin Mu Gui.' Jun Gui has no core, being perfectly round like bamboo, hence it is also called Mu Gui. The third type is simply called Gui, traditionally said to have leaves like those of the cypress. All these types grow in the valleys of the South Sea, remaining green throughout winter and summer, hence places like Guilin and Guiling are named after them."

"Er Ya Yi" Volume 12 states: "Materia medica mentions three types of cinnamon: Jun Gui grows in Jiaozhi and Guilin, perfectly round like bamboo, sometimes with two or three layers. Its leaves resemble those of the persimmon, with white flowers and yellow stamens, blooming in April and bearing fruit in May. This is the cinnamon mentioned in 'Li Sao' as mixed with Shen pepper and Jun Gui, and used to refine Hui. Today, there is Tong Gui, where 'Tong' and 'Jun' are similar in character, possibly a transcription error, or it might refer to Cassia Bark. Mu Gui grows in the South Sea, its leaves resemble those of the loquat, with thin, yellow bark, less flesh, and a scent like magnolia. When the bark is peeled, it is called Cassia Central Bark, known as official cinnamon. Gui grows in Guiyang, being semi-rolled and rich in oil, known as board cinnamon."

By the Song Dynasty, the origin of Jun Gui had become highly confused, with both bibliographers and materia medica experts unable to clarify. Li Shi-zhen even mistakenly included the sweet osmanthus flower of the Oleaceae family under the entry for Jun Gui, adding further errors. Therefore, post-Ming annotations on Jun Gui are no longer listed.

The "Jun Gui" before Tao Hong-jing undoubtedly originated from the Cinnamomum genus of the Lauraceae family. The simultaneous appearance of "Jun Gui," "Mei Gui," and "Gui" in the Mawangdui medical texts indicates that these were considered distinct entities at the time. The unearthed Cinnamomum chekiangensis, with its slab-like medicinal form, does not align with the original meaning of "qun" or the later-discussed "Tong Gui," and thus should not be considered "Jun Gui." Considering the relationship between Jun Gui and Mu Gui, where Mu Gui is sometimes referred to as "Mu Gui," "Da Gui," "Zhuang Gui," or possibly the "Mei Gui" from the Wushi'er Bingfang (the origins of these names are detailed later), could Jun Gui then be considered "Pin Gui," "Zhu Gui," "Xiao Gui," or "Ruo Gui"? We speculate that Jun Gui should be a drug that is inferior to Mu Gui in either external form or internal quality (such as pungent aroma). However, whether this Jun Gui refers to a specific species of the Cinnamomum genus or a specially processed product of the Cinnamomum genus remains unclear.

By Tao Hong-jing's era, Jun Gui had already become a rarely used item. According to Tao, there were two types being passed off as Jun Gui at the time: one was made from the tender branches of cinnamon rolled into circles, which somewhat matches the previously mentioned characteristics of Jun Gui being weak and small, but Tao stated that "this is not true Jun Gui." Tao favored the second type, as mentioned in the "Xian Jing," which states "those with three layers are good." However, the meaning of this statement was not entirely clear to Tao, who suggested "further research is needed." Later generations used this as a clue to identify Jun Gui as those with multiple rolled layers, as stated in the "Xinxiu Bencao": "leaves resembling those of the persimmon" and "small branches thinly rolled into two or three layers." Zhen Liu Cheng accordingly identified the Jun Gui of the Tang Dynasty as Cinnamomum burmanni (Nees) Blume, which is largely accurate. After the Song Dynasty, the contents of Jun Gui and Mu Gui were merged under the entry "Gui," and there was no longer separate use of Jun Gui or Mu Gui. The debates among materia medica experts and bibliographers about various types of cinnamon mostly remained at the textual level.

(2) Mu Gui

Having understood the evolution of Jun Gui, it becomes easier to discuss Mu Gui. Makoto Mayanagi has already noticed the subtle differences in the texts regarding Jun Gui and Mu Gui in the Bencao Jing. Jun Gui states: "It governs all diseases, nourishes the spirit, harmonizes the complexion, and serves as the foremost envoy for all medicines. Long-term use lightens the body and prevents aging, making the face radiant and charming, always like a child." Mu Gui states: "It governs abnormal rising of qi, cough and counterflow, binding qi, pharyngitis, vomiting and inhalation, benefits the joints, tonifies the middle and replenishes qi. Long-term use connects with the spirit, lightens the body and prevents aging." Makoto Mayanagi's view is that "Jun Gui is not used for treatment, but as a health-enhancing food or spice." Indeed, judging from the records in the Bencao Jing, the biological activity of Mu Gui seems to be stronger than that of Jun Gui. In other words, Mu Gui should be a species of the Cinnamomum genus with a higher content of volatile oils.

Let's first look at the name of "Mu Gui" (牡桂). Some say that "Mu Gui" is a corruption of "Zhuang Gui" (壯桂). The *Wushi'er Bingfang* refers to it as "Mei Gui" (美桂). (The *Bingfang* mentions "Jun Gui" (箘桂), "Mei Gui," and "Gui" (桂). Comparing this with records in the *Bencao Jing* and other texts, it is speculated that "Mei Gui" is actually "Mu Gui.") The *Xinxiu Bencao* calls it "Da Gui" (大桂). The terms "Mu" (牡), "Zhuang" (壯), "Mei" (美), and "Da" (大) all describe something rich and intensely fragrant. Considering "Mu Gui" as a more potent variety of cinnamon seems appropriate. Next, let's examine descriptions of "Mu Gui" from before Tao Hong-jing's time. The *Nanfang Caomu Zhuang* states: "Its leaves resemble those of the loquat, and this is 'Mu Gui.'" Guo Pu, in his commentary on the *Erya*, mentions: "In Jiangdong today, thick-skinned cinnamon is called 'Mu Gui.' The leaves of the cinnamon tree resemble those of the loquat but are larger, with white flowers that do not bear fruit. It grows in clusters on rocky ridges, with evergreen branches and leaves throughout the year, and no other trees grow among them." Xing Shu notes: "The *Materia Medica* refers to this as 'Mu Gui.'" From Guo Pu's description, this plant is closest to today's *Cinnamomum cassia*. As for the claim that it "flowers but does not bear fruit," the *Xinhua Materia Medica Compendium* suggests that this might be a misunderstanding due to the young fruit being enclosed by the fruit receptacle after flowering.

Just as the origin of "Jun Gui" is unclear, Tao Hong-jing was also confused about the identity of "Mu Gui." In the entry for "Gui," Tao states: "Today, in the eastern mountains, there is *cassia bark*, which has a similar strong aroma, but its leaves are different. It can also endure winter, so it might be 'Mu Gui.' Poets often call it 'Dan Gui' (丹桂), referring to its red bark. In the north, it is highly valued and is often used in meals. This is likely the 'fragrant ginger and cinnamon' mentioned in the *Book of Rites*." In the entry for "Mu Gui," Tao says: "The 'Mu Gui' commonly used today resembles 'Gui' but is flatter and broader, with thinner bark that is yellow in color and has very little flesh. Its aroma is like that of magnolia, and its taste is similar to 'Gui.' It is unclear whether this is a different tree or an older variety of 'Gui.' This remains unresolved." While Tao Hong-jing's "Mu Gui" is undoubtedly a species of *Cinnamomum*, it is clearly not *Cinnamomum cassia*. Whether this is due to Tao's lack of knowledge or the confusion surrounding the source of "Mu Gui" during the Qi and Liang dynasties remains unclear.

During the Tang dynasty, "Mu Gui" primarily referred to *Cinnamomum cassia* and *Cinnamomum bejolghota* (Buch.-Ham.) Sweet. The inventory of offerings at Tōdai-ji Temple from Japan's Nara period mentions "Cassia Central Bark," and physical specimens still exist in the Shōsōin Repository. These have been identified as either *Cinnamomum cassia* or *Cinnamomum bejolghota*, providing tangible evidence. In terms of literature, the *Xinxiu Bencao* aligns closely with Guo Pu's commentary on the *Erya* and mentions the names "Cassia Bark" and "Cinnamon Twig." Su Jing states: "The *Erya* refers to it as 'Qin' (梫), or 'Mu Gui.' Ancient formulas also used 'Mu Gui,' sometimes called 'Mu Gui,' which is today's 'Mu Gui' or simply 'Gui.' This plant's flowers and seeds are similar to those of 'Jun Gui,' but its leaves are twice as long. Both large and small branches are called 'Mu Gui.' However, the bark of large branches is coarse and woody, with little flesh and a weak flavor, while the bark of small branches is fleshy, semi-curled, and wrinkled in the middle, with a pungent and pleasant taste. It is also known as 'Cassia Bark,' 'Cinnamon Twig,' and 'Cassia Central Bark.'" Su Jing's description aligns closely with *Cinnamomum cassia*. He further notes: "The bark of young branches of 'Mu Gui' is called 'Cassia Bark' or 'Cinnamon Twig,' while the bark of older branches is called 'Mu Gui' or 'Da Gui.'" According to Su Jing, "Mu Gui" is the plant's name, while "Cassia Bark," "Cinnamon Twig," and "Cassia Central Bark" refer to the bark of its young branches, and the bark of older branches is called "Mu Gui" or "Da Gui." Su Jing's interpretation of "Cassia Bark" and "Cinnamon Twig" differs from later views, which will be discussed in detail later. Similarly, the *Youyang Zazu* (續集卷9) states: "The leaves of 'Mu Gui' are as large as those of bitter bamboo, with a vein in the middle resembling a brushstroke. The flower calyx has three lobes, each split into two at the tip. The outer color is light yellow, turning light red near the split. The flower has six white petals, with a purple, convex center resembling a lychee. It grows in the mountains of Wuzhou." The description is somewhat unclear, but based on the leaf shape, it likely refers to *Cinnamomum bejolghota*.

The "Shu Bencao" from the Five Dynasties period followed the descriptions in the "Xin Xiu" (Newly Revised Materia Medica), and its illustrated classic states: The bark of the male cinnamon (牡桂) has "leaves that are one to two times longer and narrower than those of the cassia (箘桂). The bark of its young branches is semi-rolled and mostly purple, with wrinkles in the flesh, a texture that is soft and spongy, known as Cinnamon Twig, also called Cassia Bark. When the outer bark is peeled off, it is called Cassia Central Bark. The thicker bark is known as wood cinnamon." By the Song Dynasty, the distinctions between cassia and male cinnamon had become blurred and difficult to discern clearly. The "Bencao Tujing" (Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica) notes: "Male cinnamon has thin, yellow bark with little fatty flesh, a fragrance similar to magnolia, and a taste that is also similar. When the bark is peeled, it is called Cassia Central Bark, which is now referred to as official cinnamon, and it is suspected to be this." Su Song specifically mentioned the cinnamon from Yizhou and Shaozhou, stating: "Male cinnamon has leaves that are narrower than those of cassia and several times longer. The bark of its young branches is semi-rolled and mostly purple, similar to what is now found in Yizhou and Shaozhou. The locals there call its bark magnolia bark and the flesh Cassia Central Bark. This also comes in yellow and purple colors, which further confirms it." According to the medicinal illustration of "Yizhou Cinnamon" in the "Zheng Lei" (Classified Materia Medica), the leaves of this cinnamon are depicted with exaggerated blunt shapes and cleft tips (Figure 2). Combined with Su's description that "the leaves are narrower than those of cassia and several times longer," it is strongly suspected that the original plant is the blunt-leaved Cinnamomum bejolghota.

In fact, after the Song dynasty, both Jun Gui and Mu Gui were merged into the "Gui" category. Materia medica scholars who attempted to differentiate them often ended up making things more confusing. Taking the Bencao Gangmu as an example, Li Shi-zhen combined Gui and Mu Gui into one entry, which was not fundamentally wrong. However, Li stated: "The leaves of Mu Gui are long like loquat leaves, hard, hairy, and serrated, with white flowers and oily bark," which is rather unclear. As for the illustrations of Gui and Mu Gui, both show pinnate leaf veins rather than the three-veined pattern typical of the Lauraceae family (Figure 3). This does not necessarily mean that the medicinal Gui in the Ming dynasty was not a Lauraceae plant, but it is certain that Li Shi-zhen failed to distinguish the true identity of Gui.

(3) Gui

As mentioned earlier, the Mawangdui medical texts used three types of Gui: Jun Gui, Mei Gui, and Gui. However, only one species, Cinnamomum chekiangensis, has been unearthed. We speculate that the three types of Gui were as follows: Jun (Qun) Gui, based on its name, might refer to a rolled bark resembling bamboo, possibly Cinnamomum burmanni, as suggested by Zhen Liu-cheng; Mei (Mu) Gui, meaning "excellent Gui," likely corresponds to the later medicinal Cassia Bark, derived from Cinnamomum cassia or Cinnamomum bejolghota; while Gui might refer to the unearthed Cinnamomum chekiangensis. Whether this is accurate remains unknown, but the division into three types of Gui seems overly complicated and unnecessary. Not only did the two Eastern Han medical texts, the Wuwei Medical Bamboo Slips and the Cold-Damage Disease Zabing Lun, not distinguish between Jun and Mu Gui, but subsequent medical texts also rarely mentioned the names Jun Gui and Mu Gui. Therefore, debates about Jun Gui and Mu Gui after the Han dynasty were largely confined to materia medica scholars, while clinicians paid little attention to them.

Tao Hong-jing is likely the originator of the debate surrounding Gui. His compiled Bencao Jing Jizhu included the Mingyi Bielu entry on Gui. Based on the content of this entry, the efficacy of Bielu Gui covered both Jun Gui and Mu Gui from the Bencao Jing. However, Tao considered Gui, Jun Gui, and Mu Gui as three separate categories. The Jizhu states: "According to the Benjing, there are only Jun and Mu Gui, but the uses of Gui are largely similar with minor differences. Nowadays, three types are commonly used: the half-rolled, oily bark is simply called Gui and is the most used in medicine, consistent with previous descriptions. The Xianjing even mentions three types of Gui, often used in medicine, combined with onion juice and mica, and steamed into a liquid. This is precisely this type. The best comes from Guangzhou, while Xiangzhou, Shixing, and Guiyang produce smaller Gui, which are inferior to those from Guangzhou. Those from Jiaozhou and Guizhou are smaller in size, with more oily flesh, and are also good. The classic states: Gui leaves resemble cypress leaves, dark and glossy, with yellow bark and red heart. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Qi, trees were sent from Xiangzhou to be planted in the Fanglin Garden."

The Jizhu's view of the three types of Gui seems to be based on the Southern Flora, Volume 2: "There are three types of Gui: those with leaves like cypress leaves and red bark are Dan Gui; those with leaves like persimmon leaves are Jun Gui; and those with leaves like loquat leaves are Mu Gui." According to Ji Han and Tao Hong-jing, this plant called "Gui" has leaf characteristics vastly different from Jun Gui and Mu Gui, resembling the scale-like leaves of cypress, which could not possibly belong to the Lauraceae family. Thus, Su Jing criticized: "Tao cites the classic saying that the leaves resemble cypress leaves, but upon examination, they are not similar at all. It is unclear where this statement comes from," implying that Tao Hong-jing did not truly understand Gui. Although the Shu Bencao defended Tao, stating: "Tao Yin-ju, though a figure from the time of Emperor Wu of Liang, was actually born in the third year of Jianyuan during the reign of Emperor Xiaowu of Song and served as a tutor to various princes during the Qi dynasty, so he could have seen this tree and thus made this statement. Su Jing only knew of two types and did not thoroughly investigate the matter, yet he claimed Tao was deeply mistaken. How presumptuous!" In reality, even if Tao Hong-jing had indeed seen the "Gui" with cypress-like leaves in Emperor Wu of Qi's Fanglin Garden, it would only prove that this so-called "Gui" was not a Lauraceae plant. Moreover, Tao himself admitted in the Jun Gui entry that "(Jun Gui) must be a different substance and requires further investigation," and in the Mu Gui entry, he acknowledged that "this is still unclear." This suggests that Tao Hong-jing might not have been able to accurately identify Gui species. For this reason, it is difficult to discuss the botanical source of the Gui entry in the Jizhu.

During the Tang and Song periods, materia medica scholars were actually aware that the records of materia medica for cinnamon-type drugs did not match their actual clinical use. Therefore, from Su Jing onwards, efforts were made to reconcile these discrepancies as much as possible. Although the views of various scholars differed, they all tended to merge the three types of cinnamon into one.

Su Jing regarded "Gui" as the general name for Jun Gui and Mu Gui. Su agreed that Jun Gui and Mu Gui are each a type of plant, but did not believe in the existence of an independent plant called "Gui". The "Xin Xiu" states, "Now, it is noted that there are two types of Gui, differing only slightly in their bark." After distinguishing Jun Gui and Mu Gui, Su Jing said, "The additional entry for single Gui is a deep mistake by Tao."

Chen Cang-qi considered the three Gui as one entity, differentiated by the age of the medicinal material: the old being Mu Gui, and the young being Jun Gui. The "Bencao Shiyi" states: "Jun Gui, Mu Gui, and Cassia Central Bark, these three are actually the same thing. According to Guilin and Guiling, named after Gui, what grows now does not leave this region. From the ridge south to the sea, there are Gui trees everywhere, especially abundant in Liu and Xiangzhou. The taste is pungent and strong, the bark thick and hard. Locals pick them; the thick ones are necessarily young, the thin ones old. The old and thin are one type, the thick and young another. The young are pungent and fragrant, also rolled into tubes; the old are naturally bland and flat. The flat and thin are Mu Gui, named for being old and large. The rolled tubes are Jun Gui, named for being young and easily rolled." Song Dynasty's Chen Cheng agreed with Chen Cang-qi, stating in "Chong Guang Bu Zhu Shennong Bencao Bing Tu Jing": "The theories of various scholars are almost unverifiable. What is sold by merchants in Guang and Jiao, and used by doctors, only Chen Cang-qi's theory is closest to the truth."

Kou Zong-shi discussed from the perspective of clinical therapeutics that Gui is the authentic medicinal product, while Jun and Mu are not suitable for use. The "Bencao Yanyi" states: "Gui is very hot. Suwen says it is pungent and sweet with a dispersing effect pertaining to yang. Therefore, Han Zhang Zhong-jing's Cinnamon Twig Decoction, used to treat cold-damage disease with exterior deficiency, all require this medicine, which is the intention of using pungent and sweet. The first materia medica also says, to treat cold with hot medicine, hence it is known that the three types of Gui do not take Jun Gui and Mu Gui, because these two are only warm in nature and cannot treat wind-cold diseases. Only the powder on a quarter of a coin of Gui. Benjing says it is sweet and pungent, very hot, which exactly matches Suwen's statement of pungent and sweet with dispersing effect pertaining to yang, especially knowing that Jun and Mu Gui are deficient."

The decisive role in the naming and reality of Gui drugs was played by Su Song. In "Bencao Tujing", Su Song discussed the three types of Gui in one entry, starting by saying, "Now, what comes from Lingbiao includes Tong Gui, Cassia Bark, Cassia Central Bark, official Gui, and board Gui, but doctors rarely distinguish them." Although Su Song also mentioned Jun Gui and Mu Gui in the text, as a concluding opinion, Su Song said, "Now, looking at what is depicted from Bin, Yi, Shao, and Qin prefectures, the types are also different, but all are labeled as Gui, without any other names." This should represent the official Song Dynasty opinion on medicinal Gui, that medicinal "Gui" is a general name including the previous Jun Gui and Mu Gui among various Cinnamomum species of the Lauraceae family, not specifically referring to one plant, but its main sources do not exceed the previously mentioned Cassia Bark Cinnamomum cassia, blunt Ye Gui Cinnamomum bejolghota, and some edible Gui. Thus, from the source of medicinal materials, Jun Gui and Mu Gui were completely eliminated. The previously mentioned opinion of Kou Zong-shi actually echoes the official stance. As for the later discussions on Gui by materia medica scholars, they are almost all armchair theories.

2. Cinnamon Twig, Cassia Bark, Cassia Central Bark, and Official Gui in Medical Prescriptions

In the current version of the "Treatise on Cold Damage Diseases," Cinnamon Twig is the most frequently mentioned among the cinnamon-related drugs. However, according to the research of Zhen Liu Cheng, these references to Cinnamon Twig were actually alterations made during the Song Dynasty by Lin Dang and others when they revised medical texts. Originally, the terms used were "Gui," "Gui Rou," or "Cassia Central Bark." This assertion is quite meticulous. The reason the Song Dynasty undertook such a large-scale revision was likely related to the inconsistency in the names of cinnamon-related drugs between prescriptions and materia medica since the Han and Tang dynasties. This also aligns with Su Song's efforts in the "Bencao Tujing" to unify the various names of cinnamon-related drugs under the term "Gui." Strictly speaking, the original plants of Cassia Central Bark, Cinnamon Twig, and Cassia Bark used in medical prescriptions before the Song Dynasty are now largely unknown due to the ambiguous records in materia medica. However, starting from the Song Dynasty, due to the clarification of cinnamon-related drugs by Lin Dang and Su Song, there are still some clues to follow. Therefore, the previous section titled "Gui, Mu Gui, and Gui in Materia Medica" concludes with Su Song's unification of the various Gui terms, while this section titled "Cinnamon Twig, Cassia Bark, Cassia Central Bark, and Official Gui in Medical Prescriptions" primarily discusses cinnamon-related drugs from the Song Dynasty onwards.

(1) Cinnamon Twig

The name Cinnamon Twig is found in Xinxiu Bencao, referring to the tender bark of the male cinnamon. Su Jing states: "The tender bark of the male cinnamon is called Cassia Bark, also known as Cinnamon Twig." According to Su Song's opinion, "Nowadays, what comes from Lingbiao includes names such as Tong Gui, Cassia Bark, Cassia Central Bark, Guan Gui, and Ban Gui, but medical practitioners rarely distinguish between them." Although Su Song speaks on behalf of medical practitioners, his opinion actually represents the official stance, which is that in prescriptions, various types of cinnamon including Cassia Bark and Cassia Central Bark are collectively referred to as "Cinnamon Twig" without distinction.

The Cinnamon Twig that Lin Dang and Su Song intended to highlight comes from Cinnamomum species represented by Cassia Bark Cinnamomum cassia and the blunt Ye Gui Cinnamomum bejolghota, which is undoubtedly correct. However, since it is named "Cinnamon Twig," it must be the bark of the branch. This is evidenced by Bencao Tujing, which states: "Male cinnamon, its leaves are narrower than Jun Gui and several times longer, its tender branch bark is half-rolled and mostly purple, similar to what is found in Yizhou and Shaozhou today." Bencao Yanyi also says: "Zhang Zhongjing also mentions Cinnamon Twig, which refers to the bark on the branches." From this, it is known that the medicinal Cinnamon Twig in the Northern Song period was the bark of the branch, not the branch itself.

The name "Cinnamon Twig" carefully chosen by Lin Dang and Su Song has referred to the bark of the cinnamon branch since the Tang Dynasty, which is not inappropriate. However, with the extensive use of the name Cinnamon Twig, misunderstandings have arisen, and the bark of the cinnamon branch has been interpreted as the branch itself. Chen Cheng of the Northern Song Dynasty, in his "Chong Guang Bu Zhu Shennong Bencao Bing Tujing," mentions: "Zhang Zhongjing's 'Treatise on Cold Damage Diseases' uses Cinnamon Twig for inducing sweating; Cinnamon Twig refers to the branch, not the trunk, taking its lightness and thinness for its dispersing effect. Now there is another type called Liu Gui, which is the tender and small branches of cinnamon, especially suitable for use in medicines treating the upper jiao." Chen Cheng's statement still affirms that Cinnamon Twig uses branches, but does not specify whether it is the bark alone or the entire branch. The latter part about "Liu Gui" clearly serves as the basis for the current use of Cinnamon Twig.

In the Southern Song Dynasty, medicinal cinnamon was at least divided into two major categories: Cassia Bark and Cinnamon Twig. Xu Shu-wei's "Cold Damage Diseases Fa Wei Lun" states: "Zhang Zhongjing's Cinnamon Twig Decoction uses Cinnamon Twig, which refers to the thin and tender tips of the cinnamon branches, not the thick Cassia Bark. Cassia Bark is thick and solid, used for treating the five zang-organs, taking its heavy and stabilizing nature. Cinnamon Twig is light and dispersing, used for treating cold damage diseases, taking its dispersing effect. Nowadays, people use them indiscriminately, hence the limited efficacy." This classification is different from that of the Northern Song Dynasty, and the "thin and tender tips of the cinnamon branches" as Cinnamon Twig should be the current Cinnamon Twig. Additionally, the "Baozheng Materia Medica Zhezhi" cinnamon section, after quoting Chen Cheng's "the light and thin ones are suitable for use in medicines treating the head and dispersing," has a note by Chen Yan: "Its effect is similar to Cinnamon Twig." This is quite similar to the current efficacy of Cinnamon Twig. The continuation mentions cinnamon and Cinnamon Twig in contrast, stating: "(Jun Gui, Mu Gui) Kou Shi has eliminated them. Only the half-rolled and oily ones are simply called Gui, Tao Yin-ju says they are the most used in medicine, and the ones used in prescriptions should be this type, exactly the powder on quarter of a coin Gui. Zhang Zhongjing also uses Cinnamon Twig, which refers to the spreading and dispersing nature of the branches, derived from the qi of the trunk, hence able to penetrate the striae and interstice." From the text, it seems to imply that the bark is "Gui," while the branches are "Cinnamon Twig."

The Cinnamon Twig of the Yuan Dynasty is also the same as the current use. The "Pin Hui Jing Yao" quotes Tangye Bencao: "Cinnamon Twig, for inducing sweating and exterior deficiency spontaneous sweating, the light and thin ones are suitable for use in medicines treating the eyes and dispersing. Cassia Bark treats deep cold and chronic cold, lower abdominal pain in autumn and winter, and also treats running-piglet." This contrasts Cinnamon Twig and Cassia Bark in terms of efficacy. Bencao Gangmu quotes: "Cinnamon Twig enters the foot taiyang meridian, Cassia Central Bark enters the hand shaoyin meridian blood aspect, Cassia Bark enters the foot shaoyin, taiyin meridian blood aspect. The thin and tender ones are the branches and the young, the thick and oily ones are the flesh and the old, removing the bark and the inner part, the middle part is Cassia Central Bark." Clearly, this Cinnamon Twig should be "the branches and the young," and the tender branches without removing the bark and inner part. Cinnamon Twig uses the tender branches of cinnamon as medicine, and the materia medica of the Ming and Qing Dynasties follow this use without any other explanations.

(2) Cassia Bark and Cassia Central Bark

Lin Dang and Su Song advocated for unifying various types of cinnamon, including Cassia Bark and Cassia Central Bark, as Cinnamon Twig, using the bark of the cinnamon branches. But how was the dry bark handled? Su Song did not mention this, while Kou Zong-shi stated: "The thick and coarse parts of the tree trunk are also not usable." Chen Cheng also said: "Cinnamon Twig refers to the branches, not the trunk." From this, it appears that the dry bark was indeed not used during the Northern Song Dynasty.

The citation from the "Subtle Discussion on Cold-Damage Disease" proves that during the Southern Song Dynasty, medicinal cinnamon was at least divided into two major categories: Cassia Bark and Cinnamon Twig. The records about cinnamon in the "Lingwai Daida" Volume 8, under the section of flowers and trees, are of great importance: "The use of cinnamon in medicine has a long history. The branches can disperse, and the flesh can tonify, with two different uses. The nature of cinnamon is extremely potent and easily induces growth, which the ancient sages were well aware of. Cinnamon Twig is the qi of development, thin in texture and slightly lighter in taste, hence it is essential in cold-damage disease decoctions for dispersing. For internal rescue, Cassia Bark is the best, as it is the qi of warmth and thickness, thick in texture and rich in fragrance, hence it is often used in tonifying and dispersing pills. Nowadays, physicians claim that the older the cinnamon, the thinner its bark, and they consider thin cinnamon to be of high quality, which is not the case. The older the cinnamon wood, the thicker it becomes, and it has never been observed to thin. The fallacy of physicians regarding thin cinnamon, when examined against the ancient differentiation between Cinnamon Twig and Cassia Bark, shows a great discrepancy. There is also Cassia Central Bark, used in drastic tonification medicines, which is obtained by first stripping thick cinnamon and then scraping the sap-rich areas close to the wood with a sharp bamboo, resembling a ribbon in shape, with the most intense flavor, especially effective in tonifying." It also states: "Cinnamon trees must be grown for five years before they can be stripped, with the sap being most abundant in the second month of spring and the eighth month of autumn, which is the best time for stripping."

This passage not only mentions Cinnamon Twig and Cassia Bark but also specifically discusses Cassia Central Bark, indicating that all three medicinal materials were in use during the Southern Song Dynasty. More importantly, this record proves that at that time, Cinnamon Twig, Cassia Bark, and Cassia Central Bark were derived from the same plant. Moreover, the author emphasizes that Cassia Bark is best when the bark is thick, and Cassia Central Bark is processed from "thick cinnamon," which should mainly be sourced from the dry bark rather than the branch bark.

Subsequent literature on Cassia Bark rarely specifically discusses dry bark and branch bark, but most require thick flesh, likely still primarily from dry bark. For example, Bencao Mengquan considers Cassia Bark and wood cinnamon as one category, stating: "Cassia Bark and wood cinnamon are hot in nature, capable of treating cold in the lower jiao, and pain in the abdomen during autumn and winter, as well as running-piglet diarrhea, benefiting Shuidao (ST28), warming the tendons and organs, breaking blood stasis, and unblocking the meridians." According to its explanation: "Wood cinnamon has extremely thick bark and coarse, hollow flesh. Cassia Bark refers to the thickest fatty flesh." This description indeed suggests it should be dry bark.

（3）Official Cinnamon

The name Official Cinnamon first appeared in the Song Dynasty, but strangely, even the Song people were not very clear about its origin, as Kou Zong-shi said: "Now it is also called Official Cinnamon, but it is not known why it was named so. Fearing that future generations might mistake it for something else, it is recorded here."

The first to propose the name Official Cinnamon, Bencao Tujing, speculated: "Male cinnamon, with thin bark, yellow color, and little fatty flesh, has a fragrance similar to magnolia, and its taste is also similar. When the bark is peeled off, it is called Cassia Central Bark, and what is now called Official Cinnamon is suspected to be this." This equates Cassia Central Bark with Official Cinnamon.

Furen Daquan Liangfang, in the "Standards for Processing Materia Medica," states: "The younger the Official Cinnamon, the thicker it is; the older, the thinner. Still, the purple, tightly rolled ones are used, peeled to the oily part, and then ground into powder for use." This suggests that Official Cinnamon is different from other cinnamons, but this view has been criticized by Zhou Qufei in the previously cited "Lingwai Daida."

Tangye Bencao says: "The 'Yanyi' says, it is not known why it got the name Official. Upon investigation, the materia medica from Guan and Bin prefectures are of good quality, and people, being lazy to write the many strokes, simply called it Official." Wang Hao-gu meant that Official Cinnamon is a miswriting of cinnamon from Guan prefecture.

Bencao Mengquan states: "Official Cinnamon is of the highest grade and suitable for tribute, but it comes from Guan and Bin."

Bencao Gangmu criticizes Wang Hao-gu's statement: "This is a mistake. The 'Tujing' now means observation, and there is no Guan prefecture in Lingnan. Official Cinnamon refers to the top-grade cinnamon supplied to the officials."

The explanations by Chen Jia-mo and Li Shi-zhen are somewhat reasonable, but if the Song Dynasty indeed called tribute cinnamon "Official Cinnamon," Su Song, who was ordered to compile materia medica, and Kou Zong-shi, who was an official in charge of medicinal verification, would not be unaware. Therefore, the name and reality of Official Cinnamon in the Song Dynasty still need to be questioned.

During the Ming and Qing periods, Official Cinnamon and Cassia Bark were generally considered the same thing. For example, Zhang Jing-yue's Bencao Zheng discusses the effects of Cassia Bark and Cinnamon Twig under the entry of Official Cinnamon. Additionally, regarding Official Cinnamon, there are two particularly interesting theories:

Ming Du Wen-xie Yaojian cassia bark states: "Dadu (SP2) has four grades: the thickest at the bottom is called Cassia Bark; removing the rough skin and retaining the part near the wood, which has a strong flavor and is the most refined, is called Cassia Central Bark (omitted below); the next thickest in the middle is called Official Cassia (omitted below); the thinnest on the young branches is called Cinnamon Twig."

In the late Ming Dynasty, Zhang Zhi-cong's "Bencao Chongyuan" states: "Now, the branches are called Cinnamon Twig; the trunk is called cassia bark, which is the official cinnamon, also known as the male cinnamon in 'Benjing'; the root is called Cassia Bark; removing the coarse bark yields Cassia Central Bark, which is the juniper cinnamon in 'Benjing'."

Although the above two theories differ, they both tend to agree that official cinnamon and Cassia Bark are different parts of the same plant. Recent pharmacognosy has referred to one of the specifications of Cassia Bark, Cinnamomum cassia, as "Guang Gui" (official cinnamon), possibly influenced by this.

According to the specifications of Cassia Bark, Gui Tong is one of them, obtained by peeling the bark from the trunks and thick branches of young trees cultivated for 5-6 years, without pressing, naturally curling into a tube shape, about 30 cm long and 2-3 cm in diameter. The origin of Gui Tong may be related to the evolution of juniper cinnamon and official cinnamon. As mentioned earlier, Tang and Song materia medica scholars considered the juniper cinnamon in 'Bencao Jing' as a misnomer for tube cinnamon, and Gui Tong was likely made specifically to align with the concept of tube cinnamon. Additionally, according to Qing Dynasty Zhang Lu's "Benjing Fengyuan," tube cinnamon is commonly known as official cinnamon, thus this Gui Tong, serving as tube cinnamon, naturally became known as official cinnamon.

Besides using Cassia Bark as official cinnamon, other plants of the Cinnamomum genus are also used as official cinnamon. "Zengding Weiyao Tiaobian" mentions: "There is also a type of official cinnamon, Cinnamon Twig is its branch, produced in Luoding, shaped like An Gui, with a mild taste and thin nature, rolled into two or three layers, all of which are inferior." Currently, provinces like Sichuan refer to plants such as Cinnamomum mairei Levl. as official cinnamon, which aligns with Cao Bingzhang's records.

3. The Origin of Sweet Osmanthus Flower in the Osmanthus Genus of the Oleaceae Family

Before the Song Dynasty, nothing was known about sweet osmanthus flower, a point noted by Song Dynasty's Zhang Bangji in "Mo Zhuang Man Lu," Volume 8: "Osmanthus flowers are common in Jiangsu and Zhejiang... In Jiangdong, it is called rock cinnamon, in Zhejiang, it is called osmanthus, because the wood grain resembles that of a rhinoceros. However, the ancients did not write about it, so its old name is unknown." Because of this, the sweet osmanthus flower, which began to be celebrated by poets in the Song Dynasty, holds a peculiar position in materia medica.

The cinnamon section of "Bencao Tujing" does not mention sweet osmanthus flower, but "Zheng Lei" includes a medicinal illustration (Figure 4). The illustration does not confirm it as a plant of the Oleaceae family, but according to the poems recorded in the sweet osmanthus flower section of Volume 13 of "Quan Fang Bei Zu," it mistakenly mixes the Laurus genus of the Lauraceae family, the Cinnamomum genus's Cassia Bark, and the Osmanthus genus's sweet osmanthus flower. Even more absurdly, in the fragmented records, it alters the text of "Er Ya," stating: "Qin, the cinnamon tree. Also known as osmanthus, with pale white flowers, the pale red ones are called Dan Gui, and the yellow ones can bear fruit. It grows in clusters among rocky hills." From this, it seems that Song Dynasty people indeed confused the sweet osmanthus flower of the Oleaceae family with the cinnamon of the Lauraceae family.

Influenced by these records, the Bencao Gangmu did not delve deeply into the matter and directly attached the rock osmanthus (岩桂) to the entry for juniper osmanthus (箘桂). Li Shi-zhen stated: "The rock osmanthus cultivated by people today is also a type of juniper osmanthus but slightly different. Its leaves are not like persimmon leaves; some have serrated edges resembling loquat leaves but are coarser, while others are smooth and lack serrations, resembling gardenia leaves. It grows in clusters among rocky mountains and is called rock osmanthus, commonly known as sweet osmanthus (木犀). Its flowers come in white, called silver osmanthus (銀桂); yellow, called golden osmanthus (金桂); and red, called red osmanthus (丹桂). Some bloom in autumn, some in spring, some throughout the four seasons, and some bloom every month. Its bark is thin and not pungent, making it unsuitable for medicinal use. Only the flowers can be used for tea, infused in wine, pickled with salt, or made into fragrant pastes and hair oils." What he described is clearly the Osmanthus fragrans Lour. of the Oleaceae family.

bubble_chart Local History

Cassia Bark is a southern plant, mentioned in early texts such as "Shan Hai Jing" and "Chu Ci," among others, which need not be exhaustively listed. After the Qin dynasty unified China, the Guilin Commandery was established, presumably named after the production of cassia. This region spans modern-day Guilin, Liuzhou, Hechi, Guigang, and Wuzhou in Guangxi, as well as Maoming, Yangjiang, and Zhaoqing in Guangdong, essentially covering the cassia production areas. The "Bencao Jing Bielu" mentions that "Mugui grows in the valleys of the South Sea," "Jungui grows among the cliffs of Jiaozhi and Guilin valleys," and "Gui grows in Guiyang," all within this region. The "Nanfang Caomu Zhuang" specifically mentions "the establishment of a cassia garden in Jiaozhi," which is in northern Vietnam today, indicating that cassia was already cultivated there at the time.

The Tang dynasty's "Xinxiu Bencao" considers cassia from Rongzhou, Guizhou, and Jiaozhou to be of high quality. The "Bencao Shiyi" states: "According to Guilin and Guiling, named after cassia, the current growth does not stray from this commandery. From the mountains south to the sea, cassia trees are abundant, especially in Liu and Xiangzhou." The Song dynasty's "Bencao Tujing" mentions Bin, Yi, Shao, and Qin prefectures. Additionally, the "Lingwai Daida" notes: "The south is known as the Cassia Sea. When Qin conquered Baiyue, it was named Guilin, after the cassia production, which historically named the land. Today, cassia is produced in Qin and Bin prefectures; from Bin, it is transported north by land, and from Qin, it is shipped east by sea merchants." These regions are all within the two Guang provinces, with little change in later periods.

During the Qing dynasty, cassia was divided into imported and domestic categories. Wu Qi-jun's "Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao" states: "Cassia production is called Anbian and Qinghua, both in Jiaozhi territory. The only domestic production is in Mengzi, also produced in the Fengchunli Tusi area." Among these production areas, the wild cassia from Qinghua in Vietnam is considered the best, renowned as Qinghua jade cassia. Zhao Yi's "Yanpu Zaji" volume 3 states: "Cassia Bark from Annam is the best, and within Annam, that from Qinghua town is superior. The cassia from Xunzhou in western Guangdong is all cultivated by the people, not naturally grown in the mountains, hence deficient. However, Qinghua cassia is now unobtainable. It is said that the country has a ban; those wishing to enter the mountains to harvest cassia must first pay five hundred taels of silver, then receive a permit to enter. Once inside, fearing they cannot recoup their expenses, they cut down even finger-sized cassia without leaving any, hence no seeds remain. In years when Annam pays tribute, many inlanders seek to buy it. The Annamese first buy it from Xunzhou, roast and bend it to resemble Jiaogui, deceiving the unwary. In fact, Xun cassia is also usable, but it must be old and large, with sand-like flesh under the skin to be good. However, newly cut cassia is moist and oily, while dried cassia is useless."

The "Revised Weiyao Tiaobian" records the production of cassia during the Republic of China: "Cassia Bark is a plant of the Lauraceae family, an evergreen tree with many varieties. It is produced in Vietnam and the tropical regions of Guangxi. It can be divided into several types: Qinghua, Mengluo, Anbian (produced outside Zhen'an Pass), Yaogui (produced in Yaochuan), Qinling, and Xungui. These are the general names. There are also Mengshan cassia (also known as Dayou cassia), Dashishan, Huangmoshan, Sheshan, and Guiping (also known as jade cassia). Produced in Yunnan is Mengzi cassia, in Guangdong is Luoding cassia, Xinyi cassia, and Liu'an cassia. The most abundantly produced abroad is Ceylon cassia, all known as foreign cassia." The "Yaowu Chuchan Bian" states: "Produced in Zhaoqing, Guangdong, including Luoding and other areas."