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Today, Dipsacus refers to the dried root of Dipsacus asperoides C. Y. Cheng et T. M. Ai, a plant from the Dipsacaceae family. This product is mainly produced in Fuling, Chongqing; Hefeng, Hubei; Sangzhi, Hunan; Bijie, Guizhou; and also in Yunnan and Shaanxi provinces.

Materia medica research suggests that in ancient times, Dipsacus referred to several species from multiple families. By the Ming Dynasty, the current Dipsacus asperoides became the primary medicinal variety. In the Qing Dynasty, it became the sole authentic source of Dipsacus, a practice that continues to this day. Sichuan is the authentic production area for Dipsacus, with its history traceable at least to the Song Dynasty. Since the current Dipsacus variety was first recorded in Diannan Bencao, Yunnan also qualifies as an authentic production area for this product.

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Dipsacus was a commonly used Chinese medicinal in the Han Dynasty, as seen in Wushi'er Bingfang (Wuwei Medical Bamboo Slips) and recorded in Jijiu Zhang. From the aliases of Dipsacus, Bencao Jing mentions "also known as Longdou," and Bielu states "also known as Huai." According to Guangya, "Huai, Dipsacus," Wang Nianshu's commentary notes: "Huai and Huai are the same." Thus, the Dipsacus referred to during the Han and Wei periods likely indicated a leguminous plant.

Medicines named for their efficacy may vary in species across different periods or even within the same period in different regions. Dipsacus was named for its ability to treat "incised wounds, abscesses, fractures, and to mend bones and tendons." Bencao Jing Jizhu mentions at least five plants that were used medicinally as Dipsacus. Tao Hong-jing stated: According to Tongjun Yaolu, Dipsacus grows sprawling, with fine leaves, stems like Ren, large roots, yellow-white with sap, harvested in the seventh and eighth months. Nowadays, stems and leaves are used, segmented, with yellow wrinkled skin resembling chicken feet, also called Chinese Taxillus Herb on mulberry trees, likely not authentic. There is also a tree called Jiegu, over ten feet tall, leaves similar to Shuo, bark used to treat incised wounds, possibly related. In Guangzhou, there is a vine called Dipsacus, also known as Nuo vine, whose stem juice is drunk to treat deficiencies and severe injuries, used to wash hair to promote growth. Broken branches planted in the ground grow, possibly similar. Li claims it is Hu Ji, which is quite different, and Hu Ji also treats blood.

The Dipsacus described in Tongjun Yaolu with "fine leaves and stems like Ren" might be a Lamiaceae plant, similar to "Ren (Perilla frutescens)." Li (Dangzhi) claims it is Hu Ji, which would be a plant from the Asteraceae family, possibly from the Cephalanoplos, Cirsium, or Carduus genera. As for the Dipsacus called "Chinese Taxillus Herb on mulberry trees," in the entry for Chinese Taxillus Herb, Jizhu also states: "Now found everywhere, best from Pengcheng. Commonly called Dipsacus and used as such." This likely refers to Viscum coloratum Nakai from the Viscaceae family. Tao Hong-jing clearly did not consider these three types of Dipsacus as authentic.

Tao Hong-jing believed that the authentic Dipsacus was a small tree, and according to his description, it seems to be the "williams elder twig" newly appended in the lower category of the wood section in "Xin Xiu". Su Jing said: "The williams elder twig has leaves like the chinese elder herb, and its flowers are also similar. However, it grows into a tree one or two zhang tall, with light and hollow wood without a core. Cutting its branches and planting them will allow them to grow, and it is also found in households. It is also called 'wood shuo duan', and can be found everywhere." The "Tu Jing" states: "Its flowers and leaves are similar to those of shuo duan, chinese elder herb, and water celery, hence it is also called 'wood shuo duan'." The "Gangmu" says: "It is named 'bone-setting' for its function, and also known as 'bone-continuing wood'." Based on this, the Dipsacus referred to by Tao Hong-jing is actually the williams elder twig Sambucus williamsii Hance of the honeysuckle flower family. Tao Hong-jing also mentioned a vine Dipsacus from Guangzhou, which was still recorded in the Qing dynasty. Li Tiaoyuan's "Nan Yue Bi Ji" volume 14 records the vines of Lingnan: "There are hundreds of types of vines in Lingnan, ... there is a 'cool mouth vine', shaped like kudzu, with leaves like Barbary Wolfberry Fruit, growing more than a zhang above the ground. When cut, it regenerates, containing clear water inside. Thirsty people can cut it and drink the water, which is very refreshing, and washing hair with it makes it grow longer. It is also called 'continuous vine', often flying over several trees to entwine them." The continuous vine described by Li Tiaoyuan, with water in its stem, regenerating when cut, and making hair grow longer when washed with it, is completely consistent with what Tao mentioned as "Guangzhou has a vine named Dipsacus", proving it to be the same thing. Furthermore, Li Xun's "Hai Yao Materia Medica" under the entry for water-containing vine quotes "Jiao Zhou Ji": "It grows in Lingnan and various sea valleys, shaped like kudzu, with leaves like Barbary Wolfberry Fruit, often found along roads where travelers lack water, hence the name." The "Bencao Gangmu Shiyi" under the entry for common jointfir stem quotes "Yue Zhi": "The common jointfir stem has much water in its stem. Thirsty people can cut it and drink the water, filling their stomachs, and the remaining water will still drip for half a day." This proves that the vine Dipsacus referred to by Tao Hong-jing as 'Nuo Teng' is actually the common jointfir stem Gnetum montanum Markgr. of the common jointfir stem family.

Among the five types of Dipsacus recorded in the "Jizhu," Williams elder twig Dipsacus and Noteng Dipsacus were considered genuine by Tao Hong-jing, but both differ from the commonly seen Dipsacus varieties today. Moreover, in terms of the medicinal parts used, they are not the same as the Dipsacus used in the Han Dynasty. Examining line 17 of the "Wushi'er Bingfang," which states, "For injuries, use a handful of Dipsacus roots," it is clear that in ancient times, Dipsacus roots were used medicinally. However, the Dipsacus mentioned by Tao Hong-jing used stems, leaves, bark, or stem sap as medicinal parts. Therefore, the five types of Dipsacus mentioned in the "Jizhu" are all considered misidentified varieties.

Not only was Tao Hong-jing unable to determine the botanical source of Dipsacus, but the varieties of Dipsacus remained confused during the Tang and Song periods. The "Xinxiu" states: "This medicine is found in valleys everywhere, and what is commonly used today is it. Its leaves resemble ramie, and its stems are square. The roots are like Japanese thistle herb, yellow-white in color." According to Xie Zongwan's research: "The Dipsacus described in the 'Su Jing Tang Bencao' and 'Su Song Bencao Tujing,' with leaves resembling ramie and square stems, and red-white flowers similar to motherwort, corresponds to the current Phlomis umbrosa Turcz. of the Lamiaceae family." This plant might be the Dipsacus mentioned earlier in the "Tongjun Yaolu." This Phlomis umbrosa Dipsacus is also mentioned in Song Dynasty literature. The "Jijiu Zhang" annotated by Wang Yinglin of the Song Dynasty states: "Materia medica Dipsacus, also known as Shuzhe, has leaves resembling ramie, square stems, opposite leaves, red-white flowers, and roots like Japanese thistle herb." This also refers to the Phlomis umbrosa of the Lamiaceae family used in the "Xinxiu." As for the Dipsacus medicinal illustration attached to the "Zhenglei," it is also of the Phlomis umbrosa type.

According to the "Waitai Miyao": "To treat strangury, take raw Dipsacus, extract its juice, and drink it. The root of horse thistle is used." (Cited in the Dipsacus entry of the "Zhenglei Bencao") This is clearly the same as Li Dangzhi's "tiger thistle," a plant of the Asteraceae family. This Asteraceae Dipsacus seems to have been the mainstream medicinal variety in the Song Dynasty. The "Rihuazi" states: "Dipsacus, also known as Japanese thistle herb and mountain burdock." The "Tujing" cites the "Fan Wang Fang": "Dipsacus is horse thistle, with leaves similar to Small Thistle but larger. The leaves resemble burdock leaves but are thicker, with spines on both sides. The flowers are purple, similar to those illustrated in modern Yuezhou." Further examination of the Yuezhou Dipsacus medicinal illustration attached to the "Zhenglei" confirms that it is the Asteraceae Japanese thistle herb Cirsium japonicum DC.

The formal record of the Sichuan Dipsacus plant, Dipsacus asperoides C. Y. Cheng et T. M. Ai, first appeared in the "Diannan Bencao": "Dipsacus, also known as drumstick grass and monk's head." It also states: "Drumstick grass has a single stem with opposite leaves, and the flowers on the stem resemble a drumstick." Xie Zongwan believes that the aliases "drumstick grass" and "monk's head" describe its spherical capitulum. Although the "Diannan Bencao" mentions the use of Sichuan Dipsacus plants as Dipsacus, the slightly later "Pin Hui Jingyao" and "Bencao Gangmu" still followed the old Tang and Song descriptions. The medicinal illustrations mostly copied the Jinzhou Dipsacus from the "Zhenglei." Therefore, based solely on the text and illustrations of these mainstream materia medica, it is impossible to determine whether Sichuan Dipsacus (D. asperoides) had become the mainstream medicinal variety in the Ming Dynasty or was merely a local custom in Sichuan and Yunnan. However, the medicinal characteristics of Dipsacus mentioned in these books do indeed resemble modern Sichuan Dipsacus. Chen Jiamo states: "The bark is yellow-red, and the roots are harvested in autumn. There are many coarse and fine varieties, so choose carefully. The best ones are shaped like chicken feet, with segmented, yellow, wrinkled bark. Remove the inner hard fibers, soak in pure wine overnight, dry in the sun, and cut into thin slices." The "Gangmu" describes Dipsacus medicinal material: "What is used today comes from Sichuan, red and thin, producing smoke and dust when broken, is the best." According to this description, it is undoubtedly Sichuan Dipsacus.

In the Qing Dynasty, materia medica with illustrations were rare. However, *Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao* (Figure 1), Zhang Bing-cheng's *Bencao Biandu* from the Guangxu period, and Zhang Shaotang's Weiguzhai edition of *Bencao Gangmu* all depicted Dipsacus as Sichuan Dipsacus (*D. asperoides*). Huang Gong-xiu's *Bencao Qiuzhen* even included an illustration of the medicinal material of Sichuan Dipsacus, which fully indicates that Sichuan Dipsacus had become the sole authentic source of Dipsacus during the Qing Dynasty.

bubble_chart Historical Evolution of Authentic Sources

According to the Bencao Jing, "Dipsacus grows in the Dichroa valley." Dichroa refers to Mount Heng, as recorded in the "Han Shu · Geography Annals": "There is a Dichroa commandery." Zhang Yan annotated: "Mount Heng is to the west, avoiding the taboo of Emperor Wen." This is the earliest documentary evidence regarding the origin of Dipsacus. As mentioned earlier, from the Jin to the Tang dynasty, the varieties of Dipsacus were extremely confused, with different varieties having different origins. Since these differ from the varieties of Dipsacus used today, they will not be discussed further.

The Song dynasty's Bencao Tujing describes the origin of Dipsacus: "Dipsacus grows in the Dichroa valley, and is also found in Shaanxi, Hezhong, Xingyuan Prefecture, Shu, Yue, and Jinzhou." Zheng Qiao's "Tong Zhi" divides Dipsacus into northern and southern types: "Dipsacus is called Longdou, Shuzhe, Jiegu, Nancao, Huai, Japanese thistle Herb, and Maji. The Shu Ben Tujing states that the stem is square, the leaves resemble ramie, the flowers resemble motherwort, and the root resembles Japanese thistle Herb, which is the northern Dipsacus. Fan Wang said: it is Maji, similar to Small Thistle, with leaves like burdock, spines on both sides, and purple flowers, which is the southern Dipsacus from Kuaiji." The northern Dipsacus of the Song dynasty actually refers to Phlomis; the southern Dipsacus, mainly produced in Kuaiji, is Japanese thistle Herb. Gangmu and others mention that "the current use comes from Sichuan," but in fact, the history of Sichuan-produced Dipsacus can be traced back to the Song dynasty for three reasons: (1) The "Tujing" states that Dipsacus medicine "is sold in several varieties, few can distinguish the coarse from the fine, and doctors use it, but only those with segmented breaks and yellow wrinkled skin are considered genuine." This likely refers to Sichuan Dipsacus. (2) Li Shi-zhen said: "Zheng Qiao's 'Tong Zhi' states that what Fan Wang described is southern Dipsacus, but it is unclear on what basis, probably to distinguish it from Sichuan Dipsacus." (3) Gangmu's Dipsacus invention: "When Song dynasty's Zhang Shuqian, the secretary, was in Jianzhou, his subordinate suffered from bloody dysentery. A doctor used one liang of Stomach-Calming Powder and two and a half qian of Sichuan Dipsacus powder, decocted with water, and the patient was cured. In the Renzi year of Shaoxing, during a seasonal epidemic dysentery in Kuaiji, Shuqian's son passed on the prescription, which often proved effective, especially for children with dysentery." This entry is likely cited by Shi-zhen from a Song dynasty note. This proves that the history of Sichuan-produced Dipsacus can at least be traced back to the Song dynasty.