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Achyranthes Root is the dried root of the Achyranthes bidentata Bl., a plant of the Amaranthaceae family, primarily cultivated and mainly produced in Wuzhi, Wenxian, Mengxian, Bo'ai, Qinyang, and Huixian in Henan Province. It is also introduced in Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong, Jiangsu, Liaoning, and Anhui. The roots produced in Henan are thick, straight, and long, with a sweet taste and excellent quality, making it one of the famous "Four Huai Medicines". Cyathula Root is the dried root of Cyathula officinalis Kuan, also of the Amaranthaceae family, mainly cultivated and produced in Tianquan, Rongjing, Emei, Ebian, Xichang, and Ya'an in Sichuan, as well as Zhaotong, Chuxiong, Qujing, Weixi, Dali, and Xiaguan (ST7) in Yunnan, and Guiyang, Anshun, Bijie, and Panxian in Guizhou. It is also cultivated in Shaanxi, Hunan, and Hubei.

Materia medica research suggests that based on the naming of Achyranthes Root and the records in mainstream materia medica through the ages, Achyranthes bidentata has always been the authentic medicinal Achyranthes Root, with Henan being its authentic production area, and its cultivation history can be traced back to the Southern Song Dynasty. The Cyathula Root mentioned in the Tang and Song medical texts should mainly refer to Cyathula officinalis, which was originally a local customary product in Sichuan and was used as a substitute for Achyranthes Root during the Southern Song Dynasty. After the Yuan and Ming dynasties, it gradually differentiated into an independent species, with Sichuan being its authentic production area, and its cultivation history can be traced back to the Ming Dynasty.

bubble_chart Variety Identification

Achyranthes Root is recorded in the Bencao Jing, and the Guangya states: "Niujing, Achyranthes Root also." This already hints at the origin of its name. Tao Hong-jing explained in detail: "Its stem has nodes, similar to Achyranthes Root, hence the name." The Wu Pu describes this product as "leaves like indigo, stem base red," although the text is brief, the characteristics are not contradictory to today's Achyranthes Root, but whether it is definitely this species cannot be concluded with mild purgation.

The Bencao Tujing states: "In spring, it sprouts with stems two to three feet high, green-purple in color, with nodes like a crane's knee, similar to the shape of Achyranthes Root, hence the name. The leaves are pointed and round like a spoon, arranged in pairs, with flowers forming spikes at the nodes, and it bears very fine fruits in autumn." These descriptions largely match the characteristics of the Achyranthes genus. Referring to the Huaizhou Achyranthes Root illustration in the Zheng Lei, it is identical to the current Achyranthes Root. However, it should be noted that besides the Huaizhou Achyranthes Root, the Zheng Lei also includes illustrations of Achyranthes Root from Danzhou, Chuzhou, and Guizhou. Among these, the Chuzhou Achyranthes Root is somewhat close to the Achyranthes genus, while the Guizhou and Danzhou Achyranthes Roots are neither from the Achyranthes genus nor from the Cyathula genus, which includes Cyathula Root. This indicates that during Su Song's era (11th century), there was significant confusion regarding the varieties of Achyranthes Root. However, this situation seems to have been corrected shortly after Su's time, likely due to large-scale cultivation in Henan. Kou Zong-shi recorded in the Bencao Yanyi: "Nowadays, it is cultivated in plots in Xijing, with those reaching three feet being the best." Xijing of the Northern Song Dynasty is present-day Luoyang, Henan. From then on, the cultivation of Achyranthes Root increased, and the varieties remained largely unchanged. In the Jiuhuang Bencao, Achyranthes Root is named Shan Xian Cai, with text slightly more detailed than the Tujing, stating: "The plant grows up to two feet tall, with square stems, green-purple in color, and nodes like a crane's knee, similar to the shape of Achyranthes Root, hence the name. The leaves resemble those of amaranth but are longer and more pointed, arranged in pairs, with flowers forming spikes." The accompanying medicinal illustration (Figure 1) is the same as the Huaizhou Achyranthes Root illustration in the Zheng Lei, with the spike-like inflorescences clearly terminal and axillary, thus confirming it as the amaranth family plant Achyranthes Root Achyranthes bidentata.

Regarding Achyranthes Root, it is necessary to add a brief explanation. Tao Hong-jing initially mentioned that there are two types of Achyranthes Root, male and female. The "Jizhu" states: "It is said that there are male and female types, with the male having a purple stem and large nodes being superior." Tao's statement is also found in "Zhouhou Fang" Volume 7: "Male Achyranthes Root is the one with a purple stem." Su Song also concurred: "There are two types; the one with a purple stem and large nodes is male, while the one with a green and thin stem is female." A similar statement is found in "Rihuazi": "The one from Huaizhou is long and white, while the one from Suzhou nearby is purple." In "Waitai Miyao" Volume 40, Zhang Wen-zhong's prescription for treating stream poison also uses "male Achyranthes Root." According to Mr. Xie Zongwan's research, in Sichuan, there is a wild Achyranthes Root with red stems and leaves, locally known as "red Achyranthes Root." However, this plant is still Achyranthes bidentata of the Amaranthaceae family, not a different species. This might be what Tao Hong-jing and others referred to as "male Achyranthes Root."

As for the name "Cyathula Root," it first appeared in Tang Dynasty's Lin Daoren's "Xianshou Lishang Xuduan Fang." It was widely used in Song Dynasty medical prescriptions, appearing in "Taiping Huimin Heji Jufang," "Shengji Zonglu" compendium, "Three Categories of Disease Cause Jiyi Bingzheng Fanglun," "Chuanxin Shiyong Fang," "Furen Daquan Liangfang," "Renzhai Zhizhi," "Shiyi Dexiao Fang," "Jisheng Fang," and other medical texts, alongside Achyranthes Root. However, whether the Cyathula Root in these texts refers to Achyranthes bidentata from Sichuan or another species is briefly discussed below.

If we compare "Bencao Tujing" to the official "medicinal material standard" of the Song Dynasty, then "Taiping Huimin Heji Jufang" can be considered the "guideline for prepared medicines" of that time. Since Su Song clearly stated that Achyranthes Root "from Huaizhou is genuine," how could the name "Cyathula Root" appear in "Taiping Huimin Heji Jufang"? Although "Taiping Huimin Heji Jufang" was compiled in the Northern Song Dynasty, it was supplemented over time. A detailed examination of the annotated edition reveals that out of 46 formulas using Achyranthes Root, only two use Cyathula Root, namely the frankincense pain-relief pill and the secret formula leg-changing pill, both found in Volume 1, belonging to the "Baoxing Newly Added Formulas" and "Continuously Added Secret Formulas from Various Bureaus," respectively, with additions made during the Southern Song Dynasty. Clearly, apart from "Xianshou Lishang Xuduan Fang" and "Shengji Zonglu" compendium, other texts mentioning Cyathula Root almost all date from after the Southern Song Dynasty's relocation.

In the first year of Jiading (1208), "Taiping Huimin Heji Jufang" appended Xu Hong's "Guideline General Discussion" in three volumes. The first volume's "Discussion on Processing Three Categories of Medicinal Stones" formally lists Cyathula Root, stating: "Cyathula Root, before use, first wash off the reed head, cut into pieces, soak in wine for one day and night, then dry over low heat before use. In emergencies, cut and soak in wine, steam before use, though steaming is not mandatory." This marks the first appearance of Cyathula Root in materia medica processing texts. The author, Xu Hong, held the title "Imperial Physician Assistant Instructor, previously assigned to inspect the Beneficence Bureau of the Sichuan General Command," indeed related to Sichuan. In the first year of Jiading (1237), Chen Zi-ming's "Furen Daquan Liangfang" included 30 prescriptions using Cyathula Root, accounting for one-third of all prescriptions containing Achyranthes Root. The preface's "Methods for Identifying and Preparing Medicinal Drugs" specifically mentions Cyathula Root: "Select those resembling a mouse's tail, soft and sweet, as the best."

We believe that the Cyathula Root mentioned in the Southern Song medical prescriptions should not be the Achyranthes bidentata produced in Sichuan, but may already be Cyathula officinalis, for four reasons: (1) As mentioned earlier, the "Tujing" established the authentic status of Achyranthes bidentata, and by the late stage of the Northern Song [third stage], this species had already been cultivated on a large scale. Generally, once a medicinal plant is domesticated from the wild, there is less confusion about the species. However, with the Southern migration of the Song court, the original sources of medicinal materials from the north became difficult to obtain, and there was an urgent need to find substitutes in the south. In this process, confusion could indeed occur again. (2) The Achyranthes genus is widely distributed in the south, and wild Achyranthes bidentata can still be found in Jiangsu and Anhui today. According to the "Xianchun Lin'an Zhi" volume 58, "Haixian Ganshui Zhi" volume 6, and "Chunxi Sanshan Zhi" volume 41, Achyranthes Root was produced in Hangzhou, Haixian, and Fuzhou during the Southern Song. The "Baoqing Siming Zhi" volume 6 records that Achyranthes Root was sold to China from Goguryeo. The "Xianchun Lin'an Zhi" volume 58, under the entry for Achyranthes Root, also notes: "Renhe, Xiqiao, and Baishi cultivate it extensively." Clearly, unless there were special reasons, there was no need to seek medicinal sources from the distant southwest. (3) The simultaneous appearance of Achyranthes Root and Cyathula Root in the medical texts indicates that the authors regarded them as two distinct substances. (4) It should be acknowledged that the description of Cyathula Root in "Furen Daquan Liangfang" as "selecting those that are soft and sweet like a mouse's tail as the best" is more consistent with the characteristics of Achyranthes bidentata. However, although Cyathula officinalis is relatively larger and tougher, it is still possible to select those that are "soft and sweet like a mouse's tail," so it cannot be ruled out that it could be Cyathula officinalis.

It is not unreasonable to speculate that during the Tang Dynasty, Cyathula Root was merely a local customary product, occasionally used in medical texts, such as in the "Xian Shou Li Shang Xu Duan Fang." By the Northern Song Dynasty, with the standardization of Achyranthes Root varieties, Cyathula Root gradually faded into obscurity (for example, in the "Sheng Ji Zong Lu," out of 134 prescriptions using Achyranthes Root, only two in Volume 16 mention Cyathula Root, and even these might have been added by later generations). During the Southern Song Dynasty, due to difficulties in sourcing Achyranthes Root, even though there were similar or related plants in the southern regions, they could not meet medicinal requirements due to phenological or cultivation issues. Thus, the previously local customary product, Cyathula Root, re-emerged and became widely used in Southern Song medical prescriptions. Perhaps the use of Cyathula Root as a substitute for Achyranthes Root during the Southern Song was merely a stopgap measure, but over time, it was discovered that Cyathula Root had medicinal properties distinct from Achyranthes Root. Therefore, even after the reunification during the Yuan and Ming dynasties, when Achyranthes Root was no longer difficult to source, the use of Cyathula Root in medical texts not only did not decrease but gradually increased, eventually becoming an independent variety.

The above discussion is largely hypothetical. To further clarify the medicinal history of Cyathula officinalis, the main literature related to Cyathula Root from the Yuan and Ming dynasties onwards is listed below:

1. The "Shou Qin Yang Lao Xin Shu," originally written by Chen Zhi of the Song Dynasty, with additions by Zou Xuan of the Yuan Dynasty from Volume 2 onwards, mentions in Volume 4, in the section on "Immortality Pill," the song refers to "Achyranthes Root," while the detailed annotation mentions Cyathula Root, stating: "Those that are three to four feet long and moist, remove the sprouts, wash clean, bake dry, cut into inch-long pieces, soak in wine overnight, bake dry again, and weigh one and a half taels."
2. The Ming Dynasty's "Dian Nan Ben Cao" under the entry for white Achyranthes Root states: "Strengthens tendons and bones, more effective than Cyathula Root."
3. In the "Ben Cao Gang Mu," under the entry for Achyranthes Root, Li Shi-zhen notes in the collection explanation: "Achyranthes Root is found everywhere, known as earth Achyranthes Root, not suitable for medicine, only those cultivated in the north and in Sichuan are of good quality. Seeds are collected in autumn and planted in spring. The plant has square stems and prominent nodes, leaves are opposite, resembling amaranth leaves but longer and pointed, flowers form spikes in autumn, seeds resemble small pillbugs, with astringent hairs, all growing inverted on the stem, roots are harvested at the end of the ninth month. Soak in water for two nights, rub off the skin, wrap and dry in the sun, although the white straight ones are valuable, those with the skin left on are more potent. Young shoots can be used as vegetables."
4. Gao Lian of the Ming Dynasty, in "Zun Sheng Ba Jian," Volume 17, mentions using Cyathula Root in the "Immortality Pill," stating: "Long and moist ones, remove the sprouts, soak in wine overnight, bake dry, one and a half taels."
5. Fang Yizhi of the late Ming Dynasty, in "Wu Li Xiao Zhi," Volume 5, states: "Huai Achyranthes Root is slender, yellow-white, treats women. Cyathula Root is large and blackish, treats men. Neither is recorded in materia medica."
6. Zhang Lu of the Qing Dynasty, in "Ben Jing Feng Yuan," Volume 2, under the entry for Achyranthes Root, states: "Those produced in Huai are long without side roots, suitable for Shui Dao (ST28) astringent and draining. Those produced in Sichuan are thin and slightly black, suitable for those with unstable essential qi." He also states: "Only those produced in Sichuan resemble Dipsacus in smell, form, and quality, suitable for aspermia and slippery conditions."
7. Cao Bingzhang of the Republic of China, in "Zeng Ding Wei Yao Tiao Bian," Volume 2, under the entry for Achyranthes Root, states: "There are three types of Achyranthes Root, each with specific functions. Those produced in Huaiqing, Henan, are called Huai Achyranthes Root, with roots two to three feet long, fleshy, yellow-white, smooth skin, glutinous, thick branches are best. Those produced in Tianjin have yellow, rough skin, soft thorns, not round, stiff, inferior. Those produced in Sichuan are called Cyathula Root, with thick stems, no sprouts, yellow-black, thick and soft branches are good, remove the tips. Those produced in various places in Zhejiang are called Du Achyranthes Root, with purple stems and green leaves, opposite nodes, leaves resembling amaranth, roots short and thin, containing slippery juice, treat throat conditions, can induce vomiting of phlegm toxin, diuretic. Huai Achyranthes Root strengthens tendons and bones, nourishes the liver and kidneys, as powerful as an ox, hence the name. Cyathula Root dispels wind and benefits the lower jiao dampness. Different types have different effects."
8. The Republic of China's Zhang Shou-yi in "Bencaozheng Yi" states: "The name Cyathula Root does not appear in ancient texts, only Zhang Shi-wan in 'Benjing Fengyuan' mentions that those produced in Huai are long without side roots, suitable for Shuidao (ST28) with astringent and exudative properties. Those produced in Sichuan are thin and slightly black, suitable for those with unstable essential qi. He also mentions that the Sichuan-produced ones resemble Dipsacus in smell, form, and quality, and using them may risk aspermia. Thus, the Sichuan-produced Achyranthes Root is not solely effective for efflux diarrhea but also excels in facilitating joint movement, being quite beneficial without drawbacks, suitable for those with liver-kidney yin deficiency and impaired mobility. However, the so-called Cyathula Root in today's markets is very large in form and loose in quality, differing from Shiwan's description, yet it is quite effective in clearing meridians and facilitating joint movement in the shoulders, back, and arms. Its loose quality allows its strength to spread upwards, differing significantly from the firm and direct downward action of Achyranthes Root. Yet, the common folk often regard Sichuan and Huai knees as two types of the same category, using them interchangeably without distinction, which is a mistake."

The above points 1 and 4 concerning the processing of Cyathula Root in materia medica follow Xu Hong's "Guide General Theory," point 2 merely records its name, neither aiding in determining the species. Point 3 in "Gangmu" mentions "those cultivated by people in Sichuan," which is an important clue, but its plant description undoubtedly refers to Achyranthes bidentata, leading readers to mistakenly believe that the cultivated plants in Sichuan are also of this species. However, Shizhen might not have actually seen the original plants of Achyranthes Root cultivated in Sichuan. Points 7 and 8 date back to the Republic of China, and most researchers agree that the "Cyathula Root" mentioned refers to Cyathula officinalis. The controversial points are 5 and 6; Mr. Xie Zongwan believes that the "Sichuan-produced" mentioned in "Benjing Fengyuan" likely refers to Achyranthes bidentata produced in Sichuan, while the "Cyathula Root" sold in the market at the time, described as "very large in form and loose in quality" in "Bencaozheng Yi," is actually Cyathula officinalis. This view is likely mistaken. Judging from the medicinal properties of the two types of Achyranthes Root, "Physical Minor Knowledge" first compares Achyranthes Root with Cyathula Root, Fang Yizhi states that those produced in Huai are slender and yellow-white, while those from Sichuan are relatively larger and blackish, the latter should match the characteristics of Cyathula officinalis. "Benjing Fengyuan" also compares the two types of Achyranthes Root, Zhang Lu mentions that those produced in Huai are long without side roots, while those from Sichuan are thin and slightly black. Mr. Xie, confused by the word "thin" in Zhang Lu's text, believes that the "very large in form and loose in quality" mentioned by Zhang Shou-yi in "Bencaozheng Yi" refers to Cyathula officinalis, overlooking an important sentence in "Benjing Fengyuan": "The Sichuan-produced ones resemble Dipsacus in smell, form, and quality." In terms of medicinal form and characteristics, those resembling Dipsacus should be Cyathula officinalis, not Achyranthes bidentata.

In summary, Cyathula officinalis should be the primary source of Cyathula Root, and its cultivation history can be traced back to the Ming Dynasty, as stated in the Gangmu: "People in Sichuan cultivate it."

bubble_chart Historical Evolution of Authentic Production Areas

According to Bielu: "It grows in the valleys of Henei and Linqu." The Taiping Yulan quotes Wu Pu as saying: "It grows in Henei or Linqiong." It also quotes the Jiankang Ji: "Jiankang produces Achyranthes Root." The Jizhu states: "Now it is produced in nearby areas. The ones from Caizhou are the longest, largest, softest, and most moist. Their stems have nodes similar to Achyranthes Root, hence the name." The early records mentioned above involve the production areas of Achyranthes Root in Henan, Shandong, and Jiangsu. If Wu Pu's "Linqiong" is not mistaken, it also includes Sichuan.

During the Tang Dynasty, the Qianjin Yifang records that Achyranthes Root was produced in Huaizhou, Hebei Province. The New Book of Tang: Geography records that Achyranthes Root was offered as a local tribute in Huaizhou, Henei Prefecture, and Hangzhou, Yuhang Prefecture.

Although the Bencao Tujing states that "it is also found in Jianghuai, Minyue, and Guanzhong," it emphasizes that "the ones from Huaizhou are genuine." The Yuanfeng Jiuyu Zhi, Volume 2, specifically records that "Huaizhou, Henei Prefecture, offered 50 catties of Achyranthes Root as local tribute." The Bencao Yanyi first records the cultivation of Achyranthes Root in Luoyang: "Now in Xijing, it is planted in ridges, and the ones that grow up to three feet are the best." Xijing refers to present-day Luoyang, Henan. As discussed in the variety section, the authentic status of Achyranthes Root was fully established during the Northern Song Dynasty. The Pinhui Jingyao also considers the ones from Huaizhou as authentic. The Yaowu Chuchan Bian states: "It is produced in Wu, She, and Wen counties of Huaiqing Prefecture, Henan."

Regarding the Achyranthes Root produced in the Hangzhou area of Zhejiang, it is worth noting that not only does the New Book of Tang: Geography record it as a tribute during the Tang Dynasty, but it is also mentioned multiple times in Song Dynasty literature. In addition to the local chronicles already discussed in the variety section, the Taiping Huanyu Ji and the Mengliang Lu also have similar records. However, after the Song Dynasty, this type of Achyranthes Root gradually faded into obscurity and was eventually classified by Cao Bingzhang as "Du Achyranthes Root produced in various places in Zhejiang," a variety that was eliminated and unsuitable for nourishing purposes.

As for Cyathula Root, it is named after its production in Sichuan. The variety section's research suggests that Cyathula Root should mainly refer to Cyathula officinalis. This plant was originally a local customary product in Sichuan and was used as a substitute for Achyranthes Root during the Southern Song Dynasty. After the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, it gradually differentiated into an independent variety, with Sichuan being its authentic production area. Its cultivation history can be traced back to the Ming Dynasty. Today, Cyathula Root is mainly produced in Tianquan, Rongjing, Emei, Ebian, Xichang, and Ya'an regions of Sichuan.

In conclusion, from the perspective of the historical evolution of authentic production areas, the authentic production area of Achyranthes Root should not deviate from Henan, while Cyathula Root is authentic to Sichuan.