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The Han Dynasty was an important period in the history of agricultural development in China. The excavation of agricultural archaeological materials from the Han Dynasty has always accompanied the progress of field archaeology today, constituting a major part of field archaeological data. Taking rice as an example, the expansion of its planting area, the improvement of farming techniques, and the rise in its social status are all well-documented by ample archaeological evidence. The unearthed materials have undoubtedly played a significant role in deepening the study of rice cultivation during the Han Dynasty. This article provides a preliminary review of the excavation of archaeological materials related to Han Dynasty rice cultivation, highlighting issues worthy of attention and further research in future studies, as well as offering insights into the specialized agricultural tools used for rice cultivation during the Han Dynasty.

1. Archaeological Discoveries of Han Dynasty Rice Cultivation Remains

Different forms of archaeological data provide us with varying emphases of information, leading to differences in the amount of information absorbed and the methods of interpretation. The archaeological discoveries of Han Dynasty rice cultivation remains and related materials mainly take the following four forms:

(1) Rice artifacts, including seeds, grains, husks, stems, leaves, or impressions of these artifacts. These are the most direct and effective research materials, as the morphology of rice grains allows for accurate identification of their varieties. For example, in 1975, four intact rice ears were discovered in a pottery granary from the early Western Han tomb No. 167 at Fenghuangshan, Jiangling, Hubei. The rice ears were vividly yellow, with the ears, stems, and leaves well-preserved. Although the grains had carbonized, they remained plump, identified as typical japonica rice (1). This is the most complete rice cultivation remains unearthed to date. The rice unearthed from the Mawangdui Han Tomb No. 1 included indica, japonica, sticky, and glutinous rice, with long, medium, and short grains coexisting (2), representing the most comprehensive example of unearthed rice varieties. The varieties of Han Dynasty rice identified include japonica, indica, and glutinous rice, with indica and japonica being the main types. The rice unearthed from Guangzhou Han tombs, identified by the Guangdong Institute of Food Crops, belongs to the same species as the commonly cultivated rice in China (3). The quantity of rice buried in Han tombs is also unprecedented. In 1995, a pile of rice was unearthed from the eastern niche of the Western Han tomb M1 at Dongdianzi, Xuzhou, along with a pile of powdered grains (4). The rice unearthed from the Jiangsu Sashui royal tomb in 2002 reportedly filled several bags. Most of the unearthed rice was stored in pottery granaries or jars. Besides the Fenghuangshan Han tomb, 22 pottery granaries from the Henan Huixian Han tomb contained food crops, identifiable as foxtail millet and rice (5). A pottery granary from the western suburbs of Luoyang Han tomb bore the inscription "white rice" in powder writing, with actual grains inside (6). Rice husks were found in a pottery granary from the Huangdigang tomb No. 42 in Xicun, Guangzhou (7).

However, Han Dynasty rice remains often suffer from overly simplistic records, with reports lacking detailed descriptions of the excavation location, placement, and quantity. These details, possibly related to Han Dynasty burial customs, could aid in uncovering the culture and status of rice cultivation during the Han Dynasty.

(2) Various inscriptions and texts on bamboo slips and silk. Inscriptions are commonly found on the surfaces of burial objects, such as the pottery jars and granaries from the western suburbs of Luoyang Han tombs, bearing pink or vermilion inscriptions like "white rice," "white rice ten thousand stones," "rice," and "rice ten thousand stones" (8). Pottery granaries from the northwestern suburbs of Luoyang Han tombs bear inscriptions like "dried rice," "rice," "white rice," and "rice" (9). A pottery cup from the Western Han tomb at Tiemen Town, Xin'an, Henan, bears the inscriptions "white rice" and "salt" (10). Large wine jars from the Mancheng Han tomb in Hebei bear markings like "rice wine eleven stones" and "sweet wine fifteen stones" (11). Some unearthed pottery contained corresponding actual items, but most inscriptions were merely formal, hence the "ten thousand stones" quantity is not surprising.

Bamboo and wooden slip texts include inventories of burial items and other documents, classics, etc. The wooden slips from the Han tomb at Luobowan in Guixian, Guangxi, record: "There is guest glutinous rice, one dan" (12). The inventory from Tomb No. 167 at Fenghuangshan in Jiangling mentions "polished rice" and "barnyard millet rice," and the wooden tags tied to the silk bags in the tomb bear ink inscriptions such as "sticky rice" and "polished rice." The bamboo slips unearthed from the Han tombs at Fenghuangshan include terms like glutinous millet, glutinous rice, rice, white rice, [禾雨] rice, and (polished) rice (13). In 2002, a wooden slip was unearthed from a Han tomb in the southern suburbs of Xi'an, Shaanxi, documenting the five grains of the Guanzhong region during the Western Han as "foxtail millet, beans, hemp, wheat, and rice." Inventories are the most common type of bamboo slip documents found in Han tombs, serving as lists of burial items. For example, the identification results of rice varieties from the No. 1 Han tomb at Mawangdui correspond with the records on the inventory slips. Although the items listed in the inventories do not always perfectly match the actual burial items, they still serve as a general index for organizing burial goods and as basic materials for studying burial customs of the time. Other Han bamboo slips or silk texts, rich in content, also touch on rice cultivation, though they are not detailed here.

(3) Paddy Field Models. The practice of burying paddy field models in tombs was prevalent during the Eastern Han period. Most of the Han Dynasty paddy field models discovered to date have been found in Sichuan and Chongqing, followed by Shaanxi, Guangdong, Yunnan, and Guizhou, with a few also discovered in Hubei and Hunan. Paddy fields are often adjacent to ponds and come in various forms such as large divisions, small divisions, irregular small divisions, and terraces (14), with small divided fields being the most common. Naturally, where there are paddy fields, there is rice cultivation. Significant discoveries include a paddy field model unearthed from an Eastern Han tomb in Lanshi, Foshan, Guangdong, which depicts scenes of plowing, transplanting, and harvesting within divided fields (15). A paddy field model from Xinjin, Sichuan, shows neatly arranged seedling holes in the fields (16). Another model from Xingyi City, Guizhou, features neatly depicted rice seedlings (17).

Paddy field models provide a wealth of information, including farming methods, harvesting techniques, transplanting methods, field fertilization, irrigation, and more. By observing these field models and combining them with Han Dynasty imagery and ancient literature, we can roughly outline the steps involved in rice cultivation during the Han Dynasty: repairing canals and preparing fields after autumn; storing water in the fields during winter; fertilizing; land preparation; making seedling fields; transplanting; weeding and cultivating; and harvesting (18).

The regions where paddy field models have been unearthed are limited, and whether their field forms can reflect paddy field conditions in other areas is worth studying. However, as a representation of the planting techniques of a particular era and crop, there are commonalities, even though their appearance in different regions may vary in timing.

(4) Pictorial Materials. Agricultural imagery is rich in content, including fields, crops, estates, labor scenes, and more. Many images allow for the identification of crop types or associations with specific crop cultivation. For example, the "Weeding Rice Seedlings Brick" collected by the Cultural Relics Preservation Office of Xindu County, Sichuan, depicts paddy fields and ponds, with farmers working in the seedling fields, clearly showing the rice seedlings. Stone carvings and brick images from Emei County, Sichuan, show farmers weeding in paddy fields, a scene that would only be possible after the adoption of transplanting techniques for rice cultivation (18). Naturally, regions with a high concentration of Han Dynasty imagery have more opportunities to discover rice-related themes. However, apart from Sichuan, other areas such as southern Shandong, northern Jiangsu, Henan, and Shaanxi, which are also rich in Han Dynasty imagery, do not show images related to rice, despite these regions being known for rice cultivation during the Han Dynasty. This discrepancy is likely due to cultural customs, and we cannot simply conclude that rice was not cultivated in these areas just because rice-related images have not been found.

II. Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Rice Remains

In Han Dynasty archaeology, the discovery of rice remains is second only to foxtail millet. If we include paddy field models and images and textual materials that indicate rice cultivation, the number of archaeological findings related to rice cultivation is the highest among all crops of the Han Dynasty. This, of course, does not mean that rice cultivation surpassed that of foxtail millet during the Han Dynasty, as regional distribution and burial customs must also be considered. Below is a statistical result based on the "Crops·Rice" section of Mr. Chen Wenhua's "Index of Chinese Agricultural Archaeological Data" (number of unearthed instances):

Henan 5, Guangxi, Jiangsu 4, Hubei 3, Guangdong, Jiangxi, Anhui, Shaanxi 2, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hebei, Beijing 1.

These are the rice-related data found in several major archaeological journals. There may be additional materials scattered in local journals, and more materials have been unearthed but not yet published, such as the large amounts of rice grains buried in the tombs of Ling Huiping in Lianyungang, Jiangsu, and the Siyang Dyers Woad Mound Sishui Royal Tomb, both excavated in 2002. Similar situations exist for other crops across different periods, so while this is not an exhaustive list of Han Dynasty rice remains, it largely reflects the general situation of rice remains unearthed from the Han Dynasty.

From the unearthed remains of rice cultivation, it can be seen that the rice planting area expanded northward during the Han Dynasty. According to historical records, rice was widely cultivated in the southern regions of China during the Han Dynasty, and in the northern regions, rice was also planted east of the Hexi Corridor, south of the Hetao region, and north of the Yanshan Mountains (20). This means that rice fields were spread across all regions except for the three northeastern provinces, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang, and Tibet. It is understandable that regions that did not cultivate rice did not yield rice remains. For example, the types of grains recorded in the Juyan Han slips include millet, wheat, barley, wheat, glutinous wheat, hulled wheat, panicum, barnyard millet, yellow rice, sorghum, and jute, but no rice is mentioned. The grain standards recorded in the Han slips use millet instead of rice. According to Wang Guowei's interpretation of the Liusha Zhuijian, the crops planted in the Juyan frontier city during the Wei and Jin periods included barley, wheat, and millet, which aligns with historical reality. Notably, some provinces in the traditional southern rice regions, such as Fujian, Yunnan, and Hunan, have little or no unearthed rice remains. Shandong, which is adjacent to Henan and Jiangsu where more rice remains have been found, also lacks relevant reports, despite these regions having rice cultivation as early as the Neolithic period. The actual agricultural production during the Han Dynasty and the current state of archaeological work must be considered, but the uniqueness of local burial customs should not be overlooked. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, over 7,000 Han tombs have been excavated in Shandong Province, but none of the released materials mention the discovery of rice remains, which is quite telling. On the other hand, foxtail millet remains are mainly found in the northern regions.

Shaanxi, Henan 7, Hubei, Jiangsu 5, Shanxi, Xinjiang 4, Gansu, Shandong 2, Guangxi 2, Hunan, Sichuan, Jilin, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia.

This is consistent with the dry farming tradition in the north. The two different situations remind us that relying on archaeological materials to reveal history is generally credible, but without specific analysis, archaeological materials can sometimes lead to omissions, such as fistula disease, and easily result in biased conclusions.

Another issue is that more than 90% of the crops unearthed from Han Dynasty tombs and some sites belong to the Western Han period, with very few from the Eastern Han period (21). The situation with rice remains has not been statistically analyzed, but it is also more common in the Western Han than in the Eastern Han. This situation is closely related to changes in burial customs. In the early Western Han, Han tombs contained a variety and large quantity of grains (food), such as the 15 types of crops including rice, wheat, millet, and foxtail millet unearthed from the No. 1 Han tomb at Mawangdui in Changsha (22), and the 20 types of plant seeds including rice, foxtail millet, and hemp from the No. 1 Han tomb at Luobowan in Guixian, Guangxi (23). By the late Western Han [third stage], the trend of burying grains had significantly declined. The Han Dynasty was known for its lavish burials, with a preference for coins, valuable artifacts, and daily necessities in tombs. However, burial customs began to change from the intermediate stage [second stage] of the Western Han, with an increase in model artifacts in burials, expanding from granaries, stoves, and wells to include models of rice fields, ponds, and livestock like chickens and dogs, reflecting a change in the concept of burial goods. People believed that including symbolic ceramic models of all movable and immovable property from their estates in tombs was more meaningful than a limited number of precious artifacts, as they could multiply. The money trees of the Eastern Han period are the best example; while the thousands of coins filling the tomb chambers would eventually be used up, a money tree could generate endless coins. Similarly, "ten thousand bushels of rice" is finite, but with fields, one could continuously produce more grain. Therefore, the Eastern Han replaced non-reproducible movable property with immovable property like fields in burials, reflecting another form of lavish burial.

The Eastern Han's use of field models and other symbolic artifacts instead of actual grains in burials is the fundamental reason for the decrease in grain finds in tombs. Sichuan, a developed region for rice farming, has only found one rice farming remnant (rice husks) from the late Warring States period to the early Western Han (24). By the Eastern Han, with the appearance of models of rice fields and ponds, actual grains were no longer used in burials. Since burial customs underwent comprehensive changes in an era, with various model artifacts becoming the mainstream of burial goods, regions without rice farming-related model artifacts were naturally influenced by the customs, rarely using actual rice in burials. The two Han periods are comparable in time, but the situation with crop remains, including rice, is quite different. Just like the regional distribution of rice remains mentioned earlier, when using archaeological materials to discuss the development of rice farming, specific analysis should be conducted first. The quantity of a certain type of archaeological material is not a simple numerical concept; it is not only related to the current state of archaeological work but also involves the cultural background and funeral customs of an era and a region.

Three, Regarding Han Dynasty Rice Farming Tools

It seems that there were no specialized tools for rice planting in the Han Dynasty; iron plows, iron spades, iron hoes, iron shovels, etc., were all agricultural tools used universally in both wet and dry fields in the north and south. Only the iron rake, once called a hoe (or multi-toothed hoe, multi-toothed rake), seemed more suitable for paddy field work. Multi-toothed rakes have been found in Warring States period sites or tombs, unearthed in Henan, Hebei, Shandong, and other places. Han Dynasty iron rakes have been discovered in Shandong, Jiangsu, Henan, Hebei, Fujian, and other places, with a four-toothed wooden rake found in Sichuan serving the same function. Multi-toothed rakes are lighter and less likely to stick to soil than iron hoes, and are still used in contemporary agriculture as effective tools for turning soil and breaking clods in paddy fields and wetlands, also used for intertillage in dry fields. The two-toothed rake is called a claw hook in Shandong and is a must-have for farmers.

From the distribution of excavation sites, it is not certain that the iron harrow of the Han Dynasty was exclusively a farming tool for paddy fields or originated from rice farming, as it was not transmitted from traditional rice-growing regions to the north, but rather antagonism. The five-tooth harrow unearthed from the Han city in Chong'an, Fujian, is identical to that found at the Warring States site in Yixian, Hebei, and the plowshares unearthed are similar to those from Tomb No. 2 in Mancheng, Hebei. The U-shaped spades are also common shapes in the Central Plains region (25). The wooden plaque "Dongyang Agricultural Tools Record" unearthed from Tomb No. 1 at Luobowan in Guixian, Guangxi, contains characters such as "bucket" and "hoe" (26), which share names with tools from the Central Plains (an unearthed U-shaped iron spade with an outward-curving blade shows local characteristics). Dongyang is not in Guangxi but in Jiangsu, which is an example of the Lingnan region's emphasis on introducing farming tools and techniques from the north. It is entirely possible that the iron harrow came from the north. Mr. Huang Zhanyue once classified and studied more than 200 iron tools from the Han Dynasty period unearthed in Chong'an Han City, pointing out that the Minjiang River Basin was primarily engaged in rice farming, with a significant proportion of fishing and hunting. The farming tools were hoe and spade types, used by human labor rather than oxen (27). This situation is proof that the Minjiang River Basin lagged behind the north, and the rice field production there used hoe and spade types of tools, with the iron harrow not being essential. Therefore, the multi-tooth harrow could be used for rice planting but was not a specialized tool for paddy fields. It can be regarded as a land preparation tool or a leveler, the purpose of which is to break up soil clods, level the ground, remove weeds, and cover fertilizer to facilitate sowing and crop growth, regardless of whether it is a paddy field or dry land, and it is not evident whether it was used more in paddy fields or dry fields. In the Han Dynasty, rice farming shared the same types of farming tools from land plowing to land preparation and even harvesting and processing as dry farming, such as the lei, si, shovel, hoe, plow, sickle, pestle and mortar, and millstone, etc. (28), except that rice cultivation did not use hoes, and rice broadcasting or seedling transplanting did not require specialized tools. We are discussing the situation in the Han Dynasty. As for the farming tool named "iron rake" in the Jiangnan region during the Ming and Qing periods, which "has a shape like a hoe but with four teeth," it was commonly used by local farmers for land preparation in paddy fields and was indeed a rice farming tool.

Hoeing rice fields is a mid-cultivation management activity in paddy fields. The "Hoeing Rice Field Portrait Brick" preserved in the Cultural Relics Management Office of Xindu County, Sichuan Province, accurately depicts this activity: in the left paddy field, two farmers are engaged in hoeing labor, each holding a staff in their hands. It is possible that one end of the staff stops just below the rice seedlings, pointing upwards like the teeth of a rake, which some interpret as a "hoeing rake" (29). A pottery model of a water field unearthed from an Eastern Han tomb in Xinzao Township, Mianyang, Sichuan, shows five people, one of whom has a hoeing drum hanging at his waist and is beating the drum with both hands, while another is hoeing. Most commentators do not mention what the latter is holding, only Mr. Sun Hua clearly states that he is holding a "hoeing hoe" (30). Hoeing in water fields mainly involves stepping on the field with feet, also known as foot hoeing or foot weeding, aiming not only to remove weeds but also to trample them into the mud, where they decompose and become fertilizer for the field. At the same time, stepping on the field with feet turns the soil, moves the seedlings, promotes the growth of new roots, and enhances growth. A Guangxi proverb that has been passed down to this day says: "The sound of footsteps in the water field, the sound of iron in the dry field, hearing the sound means the seedlings are growing." This means that field management requires frequent hoeing in dry fields and more stepping in paddy fields. A Hubei farming proverb, "Holding a hoeing stick, slowly moving forward. Hoeing a layer of grass is equivalent to applying a layer of manure," also depicts this type of paddy field management. The phrase "holding a hoeing stick" gives us great inspiration, as the Han Dynasty hoeing scene shows two farmers walking through the field with hoeing sticks in hand. The hoeing stick is merely a wooden or bamboo staff that aids in walking through muddy water and stepping on weeds, also known as the "hoeing hoe." It is evident that the method of hoeing and foot weeding has a long history. According to Wang Zhen's "Agricultural Book" in the "Agricultural Tools Illustrated Collection Part Four," the Yuan Dynasty had specialized tools for weeding paddy fields, called tang or dang, but still mostly used feet. The method: "Make a wooden staff like a crutch. Use both hands to lean on it for force, use the toes to step and turn the soil and weeds, piling them under the roots of the seedlings, then the soil becomes fertile and the seedlings thrive." "Make a wooden staff" means it needs to be processed and made, this crutch-like auxiliary tool can be considered a specialized agricultural tool for paddy fields. Although the hoeing stick in the hands of Han Dynasty farmers was simple, if it was not discarded after use but kept at home and used each time or even every year, it would be a regular specialized agricultural tool. Apart from this, we can no longer find any other specialized tools for rice production in Han Dynasty paddy fields.

Notes:

(1) Excavation and Sorting Team of Han Tomb No. 167 at Fenghuangshan: "Brief Report on the Excavation of Han Tomb No. 167 at Jiangling Fenghuangshan," Cultural Relics, No. 10, 1976.
(2) Hunan Agricultural College: "Research on the Branches and Roots of Animals and Plants Unearthed from Han Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha," Cultural Relics Press, 1978.
(3) Guangzhou Municipal Cultural Relics Management Committee, Guangzhou Museum: "Han Tombs in Guangzhou," p. 358, Cultural Relics Press, 1981.
(4) Xuzhou Museum: "Western Han Tomb at Dongdianzi, Xuzhou," Cultural Relics, No. 12, 1999.
(5) Xinxiang Regional Cultural Relics Management Committee, Huixian Baiquan Cultural Relics Management Office: "Brief Report on the Excavation of Han Tombs at the Construction Site of Huixian Local Railway Hotel," Central Plains Cultural Relics, No. 2, 1986.
(6) Luoyang Excavation Team, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Sciences: "Excavation Report of Han Tombs in the Western Suburbs of Luoyang," Acta Archaeologica Sinica, No. 2, 1963.
(7) Guangzhou Municipal Cultural Relics Management Committee: "Brief Report on the Excavation of Eastern Han Wooden Chamber Tomb No. 42 at Huangdigang, Xicun, Guangzhou," Archaeological Communications, No. 8, 1958.
(8) Luoyang Excavation Team, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Sciences: "Excavation Report of Han Tombs in the Western Suburbs of Luoyang," Acta Archaeologica Sinica, No. 2, 1963.
(9) He Guanbao: "Han Tomb No. 81 in the Northwestern Suburbs of Luoyang Ancient City," Archaeology, No. 8, 1964.
(10) Henan Provincial Cultural Relics Team: "Excavation Report of Western Han Tombs at Tiemen Town, Xin'an, Henan," Acta Archaeologica Sinica, No. 2, 1959.
(11) Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, et al.: "Excavation Report of the Han Tombs at Mancheng," Cultural Relics Press, 1980.
(12) Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Museum: "Han Tombs at Luobowan, Guixian, Guangxi," Cultural Relics Press, 1988. "Guest Xian" refers to Xian rice introduced from other regions.
(13) Jin Li: "Preliminary Interpretation of the Bamboo Slips from Han Tomb No. 8 at Fenghuangshan, Jiangling," Cultural Relics, No. 6, 1976; Qiu Xigui: "Textual Research on the Bamboo Slips Unearthed from Han Tomb No. 10 at Fenghuangshan, Jiangling, Hubei," Cultural Relics, No. 7, 1974; Jilin University Archaeology Major Team at Jinnancheng: "Interpretation of the Inventory Slips from Han Tomb No. 167 at Fenghuangshan," Cultural Relics, No. 10, 1976.
(14) Luo Erhu: "Types of Paddy Fields in Han Dynasty Model Mingqi," Archaeology, No. 4, 2003.
(15) Guangdong Cultural Relics Management Committee: "Excavation Report of Eastern Han Tombs at Lanshi, Foshan Suburbs, Guangdong," Archaeology, No. 9, 1964.
(16) Sichuan Provincial Museum Cultural Relics Team: "Brief Report on the Cleaning of Cliff Tombs at Baozi Mountain, Xinjin County, Sichuan," Archaeology, No. 8, 1958.
(17) Guizhou Provincial Museum Archaeology Group: "Han Tombs in Xingyi and Xingren, Guizhou," Cultural Relics, No. 5, 1979.
(18) Luo Erhu: "Southwest China during the Qin and Han Periods," pp. 121-122, Tiandi Press, 2000.
(19) Liu Zhiyuan: "Sichuan Agriculture in the Han Dynasty as Seen from Archaeological Materials," Cultural Relics, No. 12, 1979.
(20) You Xiuling: "History of Rice Cultivation in China," pp. 268-275, China Agricultural Press, 1995.
(21) Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: "Archaeological Discoveries and Research in New China," p. 462, Cultural Relics Press, 1984.
(22) Hunan Agricultural College: "Research on the Branches and Roots of Animals and Plants Unearthed from Han Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha," Cultural Relics Press, 1978. {|123|}(23) Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Museum: "Han Tombs at Luobowan, Guixian, Guangxi," Cultural Relics Press, 1987.
(24) Joint Archaeological Survey Team of the Jinsha River Crossing at Xichang Section and the Anning River Basin: "Brief Report on the Excavation of the Dahshimu at Bahebaozi, Xichang," Archaeology, No. 5, 1976.
(25) Lin Weiwen: "Foreign Cultural Elements and Their Evaluation in the Han City of Chong'an," Archaeology, No. 2, 1993.
(26) Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Museum: "Han Tombs at Luobowan, Guixian, Guangxi," Cultural Relics Press, 1987.
(27) Huang Zhanyue: "Preliminary Investigation of Iron Agricultural Tools Unearthed from the Minyue Kingdom," Fujian Cultural Relics and Museology, 1999.
(28) Chen Wenhua: "Rice Cultivation and Achievements in Agricultural Tools in the Yangtze River Basin during the Han Dynasty," On Agricultural Archaeology, Jiangxi Education Press, 1990.
(29) Xia Henglian, Lin Zhengtong: "Han Dynasty Agricultural Brick and Stone Carvings," page 3, China Agricultural Press, 1990.
(30) Sun Hua, Zheng Dingli: "Miscellaneous Discussion on Han Dynasty Rice Drum Figurines," Agricultural Archaeology, No. 1, 1986.