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Poria is the dried sclerotium of the fungus Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf, belonging to the Polyporaceae family. This product is widely distributed and comes in both cultivated and wild varieties. The wild variety, known as "Indian bread tuckahoe," is of superior quality when produced in areas such as Lijiang, Shigu, and Jianglian in Yunnan. The cultivated variety, originally produced in larger quantities in Anhui, is called "Anling" and is mainly produced in Yuexi, Taihu, Huoshan, and Qianshan counties. Currently, the largest production of artificially cultivated Poria comes from areas such as Longquan, Qingyun, and Baoning in Zhejiang, with additional production in Hubei, Guizhou, Sichuan, Guangxi, Fujian, Taiwan, Henan, and Hunan.

Materia medica research suggests that the medicinal Poria has remained unchanged in variety from ancient times to the present, all being the fungus Poria cocos of the Polyporaceae family. Poria is widely distributed, with early sources from famous mountains and rivers being considered superior. Since the Ming Dynasty, wild Poria from Yunnan has been highly regarded, known as "Indian bread tuckahoe." As for artificial cultivation, Anhui has been the largest producer, but it is traditionally believed that cultivated Poria is inferior to the wild variety.

bubble_chart Variety Identification

The term "Poria" has many variant writings. In the Wushi'er Bingfang treatment for dry itch, it is written as "服零." According to "Zhuangzi: Xu Wugui," Polyporus is referred to as "豕零," suggesting that "服零" might be the earliest written form. In the supplemented "Shiji: Guice Liezhuan" by Mr. Chu, it is written as "伏灵," where "伏" and "服" are homophones and interchangeable, as seen in "Shuowen Tongxun Dingsheng." "灵" can be interchangeable with "零," as seen in the "Lishi" volume 9, Han Xiping first-year inscription of the late citizen Wu Zhongshan. In "Guangya," it is written as "茯蕶," which is "伏零" with added grass radicals. As for the later commonly used "Poria," the character "苓" is likely a simplified form of "蕶."

Poria is a fungal organism, often found on the roots of pine family plants such as Pinus massoniana and Pinus densiflora. The "Bencao Jing" states that it "grows under large pine trees in the valleys of Mount Tai." The "Zheng Lei" "Yanzhou Poria" medicinal illustration accurately depicts its growth state (Figure 1). As for the legend that Poria is transformed from rosin, Gao You's annotation in "Huainanzi" states, "Poria is thousand-year-old rosin." The "Dian Shu" says, "Poria is..." This claim is indeed absurd, but based on various descriptions of Poria's morphology, it is undoubtedly the fungus Poria cocos of the Polyporaceae family. The "Bencao Tujing" provides the most detailed record, quoting: "It grows under large pine trees, attached to the roots, without leaves, flowers, or fruits, forming lumps the size of a fist underground, with larger ones weighing several pounds. Those resembling human or turtle shapes are of superior quality. The skin is black, and the flesh comes in red and white varieties. Some say it is formed from rosin that has flowed into the soil for many years, while others say it grows by borrowing the energy of the pine roots. The current method of harvesting involves finding ancient pines in the mountains that have been cut down for a long time, with dead and broken branches that no longer grow upwards, known as 'Poria bo.' When found, an iron-headed awl is used to probe the ground within a radius of about ten feet. If Poria is present, the awl will be firmly stuck and cannot be pulled out, indicating the presence of Poria, which is then dug up. Larger 'Poria bo' indicate larger Poria, all forming lumps and not attached to the roots. Those that cling to the roots and are light and hollow are called 'Poria with Pine.' Thus, the theory that it grows by borrowing energy seems more plausible."

It needs to be explained that many texts mention the symbiosis of Poria and dodder. Pre-Qin literature already states, "Some say that dodder has no roots, its roots do not belong to the earth, Poria is it," as seen in the "Yiwen Leiju" quoting "Lüshi Chunqiu." The "Huainanzi" further elaborates, stating, "Under a thousand-year-old pine, there is Poria, and above it, dodder," and also, "Dodder grows without roots, Poria sprouts, and dodder dies." The description in "Baopuzi" is even more vivid: "Like the grass of dodder, below it lies the root of Futu (ST32). Without this 'rabbit' below, the 'silk' cannot grow above, yet they are not truly connected." Also, "The initial root of dodder resembles a rabbit. When dug up and its blood mixed with elixir, consuming it causes immediate transformation, allowing one to act at will." (All seen in "Yiwen Leiju" volume 81, with slight textual differences from the current versions.) Note that dodder is Cuscuta chinensis Lam. of the Convolvulaceae family, a parasitic herb without roots or chlorophyll, relying on haustoria on its filamentous stems to absorb nutrients from host plants. However, dodder mainly parasitizes legumes and has no relation to Poria growing under pine trees. The ancients noticed that dodder had no roots but mistakenly identified Poria as its root. The reasons for this misunderstanding are as follows:

1. On the ground at the base of pine trees with Poria, white mycelium is often found. In the morning, long hairy filaments can be seen stretching from the ground to the trunk of the pine tree, or a layer of faint white, mist-like mycelium may grow on the surrounding soil. This is actually the mycelium of Poria cocos, and these signs are still used by herbalists to locate wild Poria. Ancient people also noticed this phenomenon. As recorded in the "Shiji·Guice Liezhuan" by Mr. Chu: "The so-called Fuling is beneath the rabbit silk, resembling the shape of a flying bird. After a fresh rain, when the sky is clear and windless, remove the rabbit silk at night and illuminate the area with a torch. When the torch's flame extinguishes, mark the spot and place a new cloth four zhang around it. Dig the next morning, and you will find it between four and seven chi deep. Beyond seven chi, it cannot be found. Fuling is the root of a thousand-year-old pine tree, and consuming it grants immortality." The "rabbit silk" mentioned here refers to the mycelium, not the dodder plant.
2. Poria is also known as "Futu" in the "Bencao Jing," likely referring to its resemblance to a rabbit. The so-called "rabbit silk" refers to the filaments on "Futu," i.e., the aforementioned mycelium. Since most ancient authors lacked firsthand observation, they assumed this "rabbit silk" to be "nüluo" (Chinese usnea) growing on pine trees, specifically Usnea diffracta Vain. As mentioned in the "Shijing·Xiaoya·Kuibian": "Niao and nüluo," with Mao's commentary stating, "Nüluo and rabbit silk are Chinese usnea."
3. The "Erya" states: "Tangmeng, nüluo, nüluo, rabbit silk." "Tangmeng" refers to the "tang" in the "Shijing·Yongfeng·Sangzhong": "Where to pick the tang." Botanically, it is Cuscuta chinensis of the Convolvulaceae family. The "Mingyi Bielu" also notes: "Dodder Seed is also called Tangmeng." Although Chinese usnea and dodder have different hosts, both are parasitic plants, leading poets to often conflate them. For example, the "Nineteen Ancient Poems" include the line: "Marrying you, dodder clings to nüluo."

Thus, the "rabbit silk" originally referring to Poria's mycelium was first mistaken for the nüluo and dodder of the Chinese usnea family, then reinterpreted as the Tangmeng dodder of the Convolvulaceae family, leading to the saying: "Below is Poria, above is dodder." However, ancient scholars had doubts about this. For instance, Tao's note on Dodder Seed states: "It was said that below is Poria, and above grows dodder, but this is not necessarily true." Su Song remarked: "People today have not seen it this way." Kou Zongshi also said: "The belief that above is dodder and below is Poria is quite credulous." By the time of the "Bencao Gangmu," a correct conclusion was reached. Li Shizhen stated: "Below Poria, there is an aura resembling silk, which mountain dwellers occasionally see. This is not the dodder of Cuscuta. Commentators of the 'Huainanzi' mistakenly referred to Cuscuta and nüluo. Poria can be as large as a dou or as hard as stone, and these are superior. The lighter, less dense ones are inferior, likely due to their youth and lack of firmness. Liu Song's Wang Wei's 'Poria Praise' says: 'White Poria resides below, red silk gathers above. Its shape resembles a chicken or duck, its appearance like a turtle shell. Divine as the young marshal, preserving youth. Unwavering in purpose, soft red can be worn.' This red silk is evidence of the rabbit silk."

bubble_chart Historical Evolution of Authentic Sources

Since Poria was regarded by Taoist immortals as a top-grade elixir for "calming the soul, nourishing the spirit, and prolonging life without hunger," its recorded origins are often in famous mountains and rivers. For example, the "Bencao Jing" states that Poria "grows in the valleys of Mount Tai under large pine trees." The "Fanzi Jiran" notes: "Poria comes from the high mountains of Song and the three capitals." The "Chuxue Ji" quotes the "Songshan Ji": "On Mount Song, there are large pine trees, some a hundred years old, some a thousand. Their essence transforms into green oxen or hidden turtles. Consuming their fruit grants longevity."The "Xin Xiu" states: "Nowadays, Tai Mountain also has Poria, which is white and solid but comes in small lumps, and is no longer used. The best comes from Hua Mountain, which is very large and coarse. Yongzhou's South Mountain also has it, but it is not as good as that from Hua Mountain." Qianjin Yifang mentions that the regions offering Poria as tribute include Yongzhou, Huazhou, and Guozhou. According to other sources, during the Tang Dynasty, Poria was mainly produced in the Hua Mountain area and its surroundings. The Tongdian, Volume 6, records: "Huayin County offered 38 jin of Poria and 38 jin of Poria with Pine." Wu Rong's poem "Sending Poria to Advisor Li While Ill" contains the lines "A thousand-year-old Poria with dragon scales, most precious from the peak of Taihua." Jia Dao's poem says, "It is often said that taking medicine is better than eating rice, picking Poria with Pine by the pines of Hua Mountain." Even in the Five Dynasties, the Shu Bencao still states, "It is found wherever there are large pines, but Hua Mountain has the most."

Poria is widely distributed, and later generations highly value the wild Poria from Yunnan, calling it "Indian buead tuckahoe." According to Zhang Hua's "Bowuzhi" from the Jin Dynasty: "Rosin buried underground for a thousand years turns into Fuling, and Fuling after a thousand years turns into amber. Today, Mount Tai has Fuling but no amber, while Yongchang in Yizhou has amber but no Fuling." Yongchang in Yizhou is located in present-day Baoshan, Yunnan, indicating a lack of understanding of Yunnan's Poria resources at that time. Guo Yigong's "Guangzhi," from a slightly later period, states: "Poria attached to pine roots grows in Zhuti and Hanyang counties." Zhuti and Hanyang are located between present-day Yunnan and Guizhou, which might be the earliest record of Poria from Yunnan.

During the Six Dynasties, Tang, and Song periods, Poria from Yunnan and Guizhou was not highly valued. However, the Qing Dynasty's "Dianhai Yuhengzhi" states: "Poria is universally praised in Yunnan, known as Indian buead tuckahoe." It also mentions: "Li Shizhen and Jiang Ren'an's writings do not mention Indian buead tuckahoe, suggesting its prominence likely began during the Kangxi era." This seems inaccurate, as "Bencao Mengquan" notes: "Poria is found nearby, but Yunnan and Guizhou produce the best." Chen Jiamo, who lived before Li Shizhen, and Wang Kentang's "Zhengzhi Zhunsheng" Placenta Pill and Zhang Jingyue's "Jingyue Quanshu" Atractylodes Rhizome Pill specifically used "Indian buead tuckahoe," indicating that Yunnan Poria's reputation likely began in the early Ming Dynasty. By modern times, Indian buead tuckahoe was widely regarded as superior. "Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao" states: "Poria, a top-grade herb in the 'Benjing,' grows attached to pine roots. Today, Yunnan's Poria is considered the best, with only two pieces offered as tribute annually, each weighing over twenty pounds, with smooth, fine skin and water-wave patterns, extremely firm." "Yaowu Chuchan Bian" notes: "Poria from Yunnan is the most authentic Indian buead tuckahoe." "Zengding Weiyao Tiaobian" adds: "Where red pine trees grow, Poria can be found beneath. This refers to natural wild Poria, which grows over ten to hundreds of years, absorbing sufficient essential qi from the pine. Its skin is black and wrinkled, its flesh firm and dense. Regardless of origin, it is of high quality. However, Yunnan's naturally grown Poria, with thin, wrinkled skin, jade-colored flesh, and a heavy, glutinous texture, is the best, though it is scarce. Other regions like Lin'an, Liu'an, and Yuqian mostly cultivate Poria."

Regarding the artificial cultivation of Poria, Tao Hongjing mentioned: "Today, it is produced in Yuzhou, where locals carve pine roots to cultivate it. The resulting Poria is small, hollow, and reddish, of inferior quality." This seems to refer to early-stage artificial cultivation rather than imitation, but the technique was still immature, resulting in lower quality compared to wild Poria, which is "as large as a three- to four-liter vessel, with black, wrinkled skin, firm white flesh, and shapes resembling birds, beasts, fish, or turtles."

Records of Poria cultivation in the Song Dynasty are more complete. Yuan Zhao, a monk from Lingyin Temple in the Southern Song Dynasty, wrote: "Not for planting pines or cultivating Poria, but for the evergreen mountain scenery. The old monk spares no effort to take it away, leaving it as a painting screen for West Lake." The cultivation method is detailed in Zhou Mi's "Guixin Zashi" continuation: "Taoist Lang Rushan said Poria grows on the roots of large pines. Recently, villagers have selected small pines, split their roots, and tied Poria to them, allowing the pine's sap to seep into the Poria. They then bury it in fertile soil and retrieve it after three years, resulting in large Poria. Dongxiao Mountain is particularly suitable for Poria, and many locals secretly plant it, marking the spot and returning years later to harvest. Most cultivators are from Yue." This method of using young Poria as a "meat guide" is similar to modern root-based cultivation techniques.

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Poria cultivation became widespread, especially in Anhui. However, it is noteworthy that Poria cultivation often led to deforestation and vegetation destruction, drawing widespread criticism. "Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao" states: "In other regions, pine trees are cut and buried in mountains. After three years, the wood rots, and Poria forms, with rough, black skin and loose texture, making it less effective. However, this practice depletes the land, turning mountains barren, causing soil erosion, blocking streams, and causing long-term harm. It is said that people in Xin'an have banned it."