bubble_chart Content

The current use of Phelloendron Bark refers to the dried bark of Phellodendron chinense Schneid., a plant of the beautiful steetgum resin family, commonly known as "Chuan Phelloendron Bark"; Guan Phelloendron Bark refers to the dried bark of Phellodendron amurense Rupr., also a plant of the beautiful steetgum resin family. Phelloendron Bark is mainly produced in Dujiangyan, Maoxian, Emeishan, Nanchong, Bijie, Zunyi, Anshun, Xingyi in Guizhou, Fengxian, Yangxian, Luonan, Ankang, Ziyang in Shaanxi, Zhuxi, Chongyang in Hubei, Zhaotong, Tengchong in Yunnan, and other regions, with Sichuan and Guizhou having larger yields. Guan Phelloendron Bark is mainly produced in Gaiping, Xiuyan, Haicheng in Liaoning, Dunhua, Tonghua, Huadian in Jilin, Zhangbei, Yuxian, Chengde in Hebei, and also in Heilongjiang and Inner Mongolia, with Liaoning having a larger yield.

Materia medica research suggests that the term "檗木" (bark wood) before the Tang Dynasty included plants of the Phellodendron genus in the beautiful steetgum resin family and the Berberis genus in the Berberidaceae family. The Xinxiu Bencao began to list the Berberis genus separately, and the term "檗木" or "黄檗" specifically referred to Phellodendron sp. From the Five Dynasties Shu Bencao onwards, the medicinal Phelloendron Bark was considered superior when produced in Sichuan, with Phellodendron chinense being the authentic variety. The recognition of Phellodendron amurense, mainly produced outside the Guan region, as the genuine Phelloendron Bark is related to the special political environment of the Qing Dynasty.

bubble_chart Variety Identification

Phelloendron Bark, compiled by Sun Xingyan in Bencao Jing as "檗木", is written as "蘗木" in the version by Sen Liben, and other versions have "櫱木" or "櫱木". According to "Shuowen", "檗" is the correct character, with Xu Shen stating: "檗, yellow wood", and Xu Kai's commentary: "Yellow wood, is what is now used by pharmacists as Huangbo." Although "Shuowen" does not include the character "蘗", it was indeed used in the Eastern Han Dynasty to refer to the medicinal bark wood, as noted by Zheng Xuan in "Kaogongji": "薜, read as the medicinal phellodendron bark's 蘗." Duan Yucai's explanation is quite reasonable: "Yellow wood, is the 檗木 in Bencao Jing, also known as Tanhuan, commonly written with the grass radical as 蘗." As for "櫱" and "櫱", the correct pronunciation is niè, originally meaning the regenerating buds of trees, with "類篇" also pronouncing "櫱" as bò, interpreted as yellow wood, which are actually erroneous writings of "蘗".

Writing as "檗" or "蘗" may seem like a distinction between standard and vulgar characters, but in the Han Dynasty, it might have directly involved the name and reality of this product. Bark wood has been used as a dye since ancient times, as noted by Sima Xiangru in "Zixu Fu": "檗離朱楊", with Zhang Ji commenting: "檗, the bark can be used for dyeing." Zeng Zao in "Leishuo" volume 47 Orpiment entry states: "Ancient people used yellow paper for writing, dyed with 檗, to repel insects, hence called yellow scrolls." Bao Zhao's poem "剉蘗染黃絲, 黃絲歷亂不可治." The beautiful steetgum resin family's Phellodendron chinense and others contain berberine that can dye yellow, so considering these plants as the source of Han Dynasty's bark wood should not be a problem. However, from another perspective, Phellodendron chinense is a tall tree, reaching 15-20 meters, making it hard to imagine the character "檗木" for a tree, already with the radical "木", being added with the "艸" radical to become "蘗木", which is indeed unlikely. On the other hand, Berberis plants in the Berberidaceae family are generally small shrubs of 1-3 meters, also containing yellow berberine, so it cannot be ruled out that various Berberis sp. were also considered as bark wood in the Han Dynasty.

This confusion still existed during Tao Hong-jing's era. The "Collected Annotations" states: "Its root is classified among the Taoist 'wooden fungi' category, but people today do not know to take and consume it. There is also a small tree, resembling a pomegranate, with yellow and bitter bark, commonly called 'Zi Bo,' which also treats aphtha. Another small tree, very thorny, also with yellow bark, also treats aphtha." Tao Hong-jing mentions the type of Phellodendron referred to as "Taoist wooden fungi" in the "Inner Chapters of Baopuzi: Immortal Medicines": "The root beneath a thousand-year-old Phellodendron bark tree, resembling a three-hu vessel, located one or two zhang from the main trunk, connected by fine roots like threads, is ground into powder and consumed. Consuming one piece completely can make one an earthbound immortal, never dying." This type of Phellodendron should belong to the Phellodendron genus of the Rutaceae family, while the low-growing, pomegranate-like, thorny Phellodendron described by Tao is likely from the Berberis genus of the Berberidaceae family.

The "Xin Xiu" officially separated the Berberis genus plants mixed in the Amur cork-tree section into a separate section called Berberis, stating that Berberis is also known as mountain pomegranate. Su Jing said: "Its branches and leaves are no different from pomegranate, but the flowers are different, the seeds are small and black, round like raw plums. It grows among mountain rocks and can be found everywhere, with those from the east of Xiangyang Xianshan being the best. Tao attached two species under the Amur cork-tree section, one of which is this. Tao said the bark is yellow, but the tree actually has white bark. What is stored by the Taichang now is a species with many thorns on the leaves, called white thorn Berberis, not small Berberis." Under the Amur cork-tree section, Su Jing said: "Zi Bo is also called mountain pomegranate, its seeds resemble privet, the bark is white not yellow, also called small Berberis, found everywhere. Now it is said the bark is yellow, which is probably wrong. According to current common usage, Zi Bo refers to a small thorny tree called thorn Berberis, not small Berberis." Combining the description of Berberis in "Bencao Shiyi": "Small Berberis is like pomegranate, with yellow bark and red seeds, like Barbary Wolfberry Fruit, Radde Anemone Rhizome, people scrape the branches to dye yellow. If it is said the seeds are black and round, it might be something else, not small Berberis." The "Xinhua Materia Medica Outline" tentatively identified it as Berberis silva-taroucana Schneid., as one theory. From the Tang Dynasty onwards, Amur cork-tree or Huang Bo specifically referred to the Phellodendron genus of the Rutaceae family, and was no longer confused with Berberis.

The drugs recorded in "Shu Bencao" are mainly from Sichuan, and Huang Bo was changed to the official name. It is said: "Phellodendron bark trees are several zhang tall, leaves resemble Evodia Fruit, also like purple Toona, bark is yellow, roots are like pine Poria, found everywhere now. Originally from Fang, Shang, He and other prefectures' valleys, bark is tight and thick two to three fen, fresh yellow is the best, bark is collected in February and May and dried in the sun." Judging from the resource distribution, identifying this product as Phellodendron chinense and its variants is roughly correct.

"Bencao Tujing" still emphasizes "those from Shu are the best". Su Song said: "The tree is several zhang tall, leaves resemble Evodia and Toona leaves, do not wither in winter, bark is white outside and deep yellow inside." The "Shangzhou Huang Bo" depicted in "Zheng Lei" should be Phellodendron chinense, (Figure 1) as for another Huang Bo, with leaves nearly clustered and deliberately highlighting its thorns, it seems inappropriate to identify it as Phellodendron chinense.

Afterwards, in books such as "Pin Hui Jing Yao", "Bencao Mengquan", "Bencao Gangmu", "Ye Cai Bo Lu", "Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao", etc., Amur cork-tree, or Huang Bo, or abbreviated as Phellodendron Bark, are almost all Phellodendron chinense type.

As for Phellodendron amurense, mainly distributed outside the pass, becoming the official medicinal product is probably related to the Manchus entering the Central Plains during the Qing Dynasty. According to "Shengjing Tongzhi" volume 10, Emperor Qianlong's "Shengjing Fu" has a line: "Bright red apricots and crimson peaches, mixed white Catalpa and yellow Phellodendron", which is probably the earliest literature reference to Phellodendron Bark outside the pass.

bubble_chart Authentic Evolution

In "Bencao Jing Bielu", Amur cork-tree "grows in Hanzhong valleys and Yongchang", Tao Hong-jing said: "Now those from Shaoling are light, thin and dark in color, which are the best, those from Dongshan are thick and light in color." At that time, Sichuan products were not yet considered the best.

During the Tang Dynasty, the main production area of Phelloendron Bark was between Sichuan and Shaanxi. The "Yuanhe Junxian Zhi" Volume 25 mentions that in Wuxing Mountain, Shunzheng County, Xingzhou, "there is much lacquer and Phelloendron Bark." The "New Book of Tang: Geography" records that Phelloendron Bark was a local tribute in Jinzhou's Hanyin Commandery, which is located in the area of present-day Hanzhong and Hanyin County in Shaanxi. The "Shu Bencao" from the Five Dynasties period clearly states that "those from Sichuan are the best." Since then, various materia medica and local chronicles have often regarded Sichuan-produced Phelloendron Bark as the highest quality, with numerous documents attesting to this, which will not be extensively cited here. The "Zengding Weiyao Tiaobian" discusses the quality differences between Sichuan Phelloendron Bark and Guan Phelloendron Bark: "The Phelloendron Bark produced in Nanchong County, Shunqing Prefecture, Sichuan, is known as Sichuan Phelloendron Bark, with an old yellow color, yellow-black inner and outer bark, and small pieces that can be used as dye. The Phelloendron Bark produced in Hunan and Guandong is known as Guan Phelloendron Bark, with very large and thin pieces and a light yellow color, which is of lesser quality."